וּשְׁמַרְתֶּ֤ם אֶת־חֻקֹּתַי֙ וְאֶת־מִשְׁפָּטַ֔י אֲשֶׁ֨ר יַעֲשֶׂ֥ה אֹתָ֛ם הָאָדָ֖ם וָחַ֣י בָּהֶ֑ם אֲנִ֖י יְהוָֽה׃
“So you shall keep My statutes and My judgments, which if a man does them, he shall live by them; I am Yahweh” (LSB)
Thesis: This verse promises eternal life upon obedience to the statutes and judgments of the Mosaic covenant. In fact, no one (except Christ) would ever be able to fulfill this requirement and thus no one would obtain salvation by this path.
Place of Leviticus 18 in the Structure of Leviticus
Leviticus 18 begins a major section of the book of Leviticus. Leviticus 18:5 thus stands at a strategic point in the book.
Leviticus 1-16 deals with the cultic matters that relate to entering into the tabernacle. This section climaxes with the day of atonement as recounted in chapter 16. Chapter 17 “serves as a pivot between Leviticus 1-16 and 18-26” (Averbeck, “Tabernacle,” DOTP, 820).
Jay Sklar concurs with this structure:
Like chapters 1–16; Leviticus 17 addresses issues related to the proper place of sacrifice (cf. 17:4 with 1:3; 3:2; 4:4), the proper use of blood (cf. 17:10, 12, 14 with 3:17; 7:26), the importance of addressing ritual impurity (cf. 17:15–16 with 11:24–25, 39–40; 15:31; 16:16, 19), and the application of these laws to resident aliens (cf. 17:8, 10, 13, 15 with 16:29). But like chapters 18–20; Leviticus 17 also has a prohibition against illicit cultic practices (cf. 17:7 with 18:21; 19:4; 20:2). The chapter therefore serves as a smooth transition between Leviticus 1–16 and Leviticus 18–20. [TOTC, 217]
Averbeck also notes,
On the one hand, ch. 17 looks back to chs. 1-16 in the sense that it emphasizes making offerings in the tabernacle (vv. 1-9) along with blood “atonement,” which therefore includes the prohibition against eating blood (vv. 10-16). On the other hand, the primary goal of the regulations in ch.17 is to introduce one of the major concerns of chs. 18-26: the absolute exclusivity of Yahweh worship. [NIV BTSB, 200]
Averbeck also notes that the statements, “Be holy because I, the LORD your God, am holy” and “I am the LORD (your God)” occur throughout Leviticus 18-26 but do not occur in Leviticus 17 or 27 (DOTP, 820).
Thus Leviticus 18:1-5 is the beginning section of the next major part of the book of Leviticus. Its scope, therefore, should not be reduced to the laws regarding unlawful sexual relations. Rather, these verses occur at the center of the book of Leviticus, at the center of the Pentateuch, and at the beginning of a section about holiness of life in the promised land.
It should not be surprising, therefore, that New Testament figures discerned in Leviticus 18:5 a programmatic statement regarding the Mosaic Law. Neither Jesus nor Paul was cherry-picking a random verse from the Pentateuch when he quoted Leviticus 18:5. Both recognized that Leviticus 18:5 occupies a strategic position within the structure of Leviticus and within the structure of the Pentateuch.
The Use of the OT in Leviticus 18
Nobuyoshi Kiuchi observes numerous connections between Leviticus 18 and Genesis 2-3 (ApOTC, 330-31). For instance, much of Leviticus 18 deals with forbidden sexual relations, including between men and men and between man and beast. These laws are rooted in the creation order outlined in Genesis 2:20-23. Adam’s inability to find a corresponding helper in the animal world and God’s creation of woman as the corresponding helper for man reveals the proper creation order regarding intimate relations. Leviticus 18 also refers repeatedly sexual relations in terms of uncovering nakedness. This evokes Genesis 2:25 and Genesis 3:21. Unfallen man and woman were “both naked and were not ashamed” (Gen 2:25), but after the Fall man and woman are in need of covering (Gen 3:21). Finally, just as man was sent (שׁלח) from the garden after his sin so the nations are sent out of the promised land, the analogue to Eden (Lev 18:24).
Given the extensive connections between Genesis 2-3 in this chapter, it is difficult not to read, “”So you shall keep My statutes and My judgments, which if a man does them, he shall live by them” (LSB) as an analogue to “but of the tree of the knowledge of good and evil you shall not eat, for in the day that you eat of it you shall surely die” (Gen 2:17). Since Genesis 2:17 encompassed not only physical death but also eternal death, Leviticus 18:5 may also encompass not only temporal life but also eternal life.
It is also notable that Leviticus 18:5 switches from the phrasing, “So you shall keep” to “if a man [הָאָדָ֖ם] does them. Jason DeRouchie observes, “the noun phrase ‘the man’ (הָאָדָם) in Leviticus 18:5 may be an allusion to the first man (הָאָדָם) in the garden, who himself foreshadowed Israel’s existence. God created the first man in the wilderness (Gen 2:7), moved him into paradise (2:8, 15), and gave him commands (2:16–17), the keeping of which would have resulted in his lasting life (2:17; cf. 3:24). Then, upon the man’s disobedience (3:6), God justly exiled him from paradise, resulting his ultimate death (3:23–24; cf. 3:19). This too becomes Israel’s story” (“The Use of Leviticus 18:5 in Galatians 3:12,” Them 45 [2020]: 249). DeRouchie concludes, “”The Mosaic covenant, therefore, in many ways mirrored God’s covenant with creation through Adam (Isa 24:4–6; Hos 6:7), with Yahweh’s relationship with Israel supplying a microcosmic picture of the larger relationship he has over all humanity” (“The Use of Leviticus 18:5 in Galatians 3:12,” Them 45 [2020]: 249).
Exegetical Observations on Leviticus 18:1-5
Leviticus 18:1-5 establishes that just as Adam and Eve were in a covenant relationship with Yhwh, so the people of Israel are in a covenant relationship with Israel. Twice Yhwh identifies himself with the phrase, “I am Yhwh your God” (Lev 18:2, 4). For Yhwh to be “your God” implies a covenant relationship with the people he is addressing.
John Kleinig rightly observes, “The promise of life here goes beyond mere physical survival. It has to do with the possession of God-given life in its fullness: liveliness and vitality, prosperity and blessing (Deut 30:15-20). This abundant life continues into the age to come (Jn 10:10)” (ConC, 375-76). As Kiuchi astutely observes, if eternal life is not in view, the phrase “and lives” refers to a state that “will ultimately result in death” (ApOTC, 332).
In support of the eternal life interpretation, Kiuchi observes, “In Leviticus the term ḥāyâ means to ‘live’ in the biological sense of moving freely (cf. 13:10, 14-16; 14:4-5; 16:10; Deut 8:3; Ezek. 20:11, 13, 21). However, as this life is guaranteed by the observance of these rules, and not by food, the life envisaged here must mean more than just physical life, but primarily spiritual life, a life that embraces physical life” (ApOTC, 332). Kiuchi concludes, “it is possible to read this verse as saying that by ‘and live’ the Lord intends to say that a man lives forever, on the assumption that the present life is part of eternal life (cf. Eccl. 3:11; Gen. 3:22)” (ApOTC, 332).
This interpretation is consistent with other statements in the Mosaic covenant, as Jason DeRoucie notes: “Moses frequently conditions life and blessing/good (Lev 26:3–13; Deut 28:1–14), death and curse/evil (Lev 26:14–39; Deut 27:11–26; 28:15–68), on a perfect keeping of all the law (Deut 11:26–28; 30:15–19; cf. e.g., 5:29; 6:25; 8:1; 11:32; 26:18) with all one’s heart and soul (4:29; 6:5; 10:12; 11:13; 13:3; 26:16; cf. 30:2, 6, 10). By their pursuing God’s standard of ‘righteousness’ (צֶ֫דֶק, 16:20) and by their keeping his whole commandment manifest in the various statutes and rules, the Lord would preserve their lives (6:24), they would enjoy the status of ‘righteousness’ (צְדָקָה, 6:25; cf. Ps 106:30–31), and they would secure lasting ‘life’ (Deut 8:1; 16:20; 30:16)” (“The Use of Leviticus 18:5 in Galatians 3:12,” Them 45 [2020]: 247). Though many of these statements emphasize the temporal blessings that Israel would receive, those blessings were to anticipate the blessings of eternal life. Thus DeRouchie notes, “”The community needed God to preserve their present lives (cf. Deut 4:4; 5:3; 6:24), and the blessings they sought included temporal provision and protection (see esp. Lev 26:3–13; Deut 28:1–14). Nevertheless, in a very real sense the “life” Moses was promising also included a soteriological and eschatological escalation beyond their present state—one that he could contrast with being “cut off from among their people” (Lev 18:29)” (“The Use of Leviticus 18:5 in Galatians 3:12,” Them 45 [2020]: 247).
DeReouchie goes on to observe, “In light of the above, the prepositional phrase in the clause “they shall live by them” in Leviticus 18:5 most likely includes a sense of instrumentality (i.e., “by means of the statutes”) and not just locality (i.e., “in the sphere of the statutes”)” (“The Use of Leviticus 18:5 in Galatians 3:12,” Them 45 [2020]: 247).
Many interpreters (Gathercole, Moo, and others) hold that Leviticus 18:5 was speaking typologically about life in the land but that later OT passages, NT texts, and rabbinic writings interpret the typological in light of what it typified (that is, eternal life) or that they expanded the scope. It would be better, however, to understand Ezekiel, Jesus, and Paul as correctly interpreting Leviticus 18:5.
Reception History
Tg. Ps.-J. and Tg. Onq. identify the life in this verse as “eternal life” (Hartley, WBC, 282). Likewise, Damascus Document and Psalms of Solomon understand life in this passage to be eternal life (Rosner, Paul and the Law, NSBT, 63). Jewish intertestamental and rabbinic literature is not always correct in their interpretations, but these sources do provide early evidence for the plausibility of the eternal life reading
That this covenant promised eternal life on the condition of perfect obedience is a strand that runs through the Protestant interpretive tradition. As John Calvin observed, “If someone expresses the Law of God in his life, he will lack nothing of the perfection required before the Lord. In order to certify that, God promises to those who shall have fulfilled the Law not only the grand blessings of the present life, which are recited in Lev. 26:3–13 and in Deut. 27:1–14, but also the recompense of eternal life (Lev. 18:5)” (“Calvin’s Catechism (1537),” in Reformed Confession, 1:364). Calvin reiterates this understanding in the Institutes: “We cannot gainsay that the reward of eternal salvation awaits complete obedience to the law, as the Lord has promised”—while also observing, “Because observance of the law is found in none of us, we are excluded from the promises of life, and fall back into the mere curse” (Battles translation, 1:351, 352; 2.7.3).
Andrew Bonar understands the life in this verse to be eternal life, and he concludes: “so excellent are God’s laws, and every special, minute detail of these laws, that if a man were to keep these always and perfectly, this keeping would be eternal life to him.” Noting the quotation of this verse in Romans 10:5 and Galatians 3:12, Bonar finds this interpretation “to be the true and only sense here” (Leviticus, 329-30).
Similarly, Geerhardus Vos quotes this verse in support of the claim that “even after the covenant of works is broken, perfect keeping of the law is presented as a hypothetical means for obtaining life, a means that must work infallibly” (Reformed Dogmatics, 41:1).
Old Testament Use of Leviticus 18:5
Simon Gathercole identifies Ezekiel 20 as the “first commentary on Leviticus 18:5 (“Torah, Life and Salvation,” in From Prophecy to Testament, 127; cf. Kleinig, ConC, 375; Moo, BECNT, 221). In Ezekiel 20:11, 13, 21 Yhwh refers to the laws of the Mosaic covenant as those “by which, if a man does them, he will live by them” (LSB). Disobedient Israel is then given over to “statutes that were not good and rules by which they could not have life,” which is probably a reference to giving them over to idolatrous ways (Calvin, Commentary, 2:315; Poole, Annotations, 2:721; Owen, Works, 22:465-66; KD 9:157; Fairbairn, Ezekiel, 220-22; Vos, Biblical Theology, 144; Feinberg, Ezekiel, 112; Cooper, NAC, 205; Alexander, REBC, 749). To say that idolatrous ways were those “by which they could not have life” is an understatement as idolatry brings eternal death. Also, the contrast between eternal death and life indicates that the life in view is eternal life. Finally, this passage foretells a restoration of Israel in the new creation. Ezekiel 20 seems, therefore, to interpret life in Leviticus 18:5 as eternal life.
Nehemiah 9:29 also alludes to Leviticus 18:5 (Kleinig, ConC, 375; Moo, BECNT, 221). Once again, the laws of the Mosaic covenant are referred to as that “by which if a man does them, he shall live” (LSB). What follows are temporal punishments. This does not invalidate the thesis, for as Kiuchi above noted the eternal life in view would include this present life also.
New Testament Use of Leviticus 18:5
Matthew 19:17
When the rich young man asked Jesus, “Teacher what good deed must I do to have eternal life?” (Mt 19:16) Jesus responded in a twofold manner. First, he established that only God is good (Mt 19:17). Second, he said, “If you would enter life, keep the commandments.” (Mt 19:17). The commandments that are then detailed are the from the Decalogue to which is added the second great commandment (from Lev 19:18).
Calvin understands Jesus to teach “that the Law teaches how men may obtain righteousness by works, and yet that no man is justified by works, because the fault lies not in the doctrine of the Law, but in men” (Harmony of the Evangelists, 3:60). It will not do to say that Jesus simply answers the rich young man according to his own viewpoint. Though the young man’s viewpoint provides the framework for Christ’s answer, Jesus was not simply accomodating himself to this young man. Christ both teaches that eternal life can in theory be obtained by obedience to the law and that in fact it cannot be so obtained since no one is good but God alone.
Luke 10:28
Just preceding the Parable of the Good Samaritan, a lawyer asked Jesus, “Teacher, what shall I do to inherit eternal life?” (Lk 10:25). When Jesus asked the man what the Law of Moses said, he responded by citing the two great commandments. To which Jesus, responded, “You have answered correctly; do this, and you will live” (Lk 10:28). The two great commandments summarize the Mosaic Law, and Jesus echoed Leviticus 18:5 in affirming this to be the right answer (Crowe, Perfect Life, 81). In context, this is eternal life that Jesus is speaking of. However, the way Jesus phrased this affirmation implied that the lawyer was not yet fulfilling the law and thus still lacked eternal life (Garland, 438-39). The lawyer, for his part, recognizes that he cannot keep the Mosaic Law without narrowing its requirements. Thus obedience to the Mosaic covenant is seen as a potential path to eternal life, but not one that any sinner will achieve. As Calvin says, “for the reason why God justifies us freely is, not that the Law does not point out perfect righteousness, but because we fail in keeping it, and the reason why it is declared to be impossible for us to obtain life by it is, that it is weak through our flesh, (Rom. 8:3.) So then these two statements are perfectly consistent with each other, that the Law teaches how men may obtain righteousness by works, and yet that no man is justified by works, because the fault lies not in the doctrine of the Law, but in men” (Commentary on a Harmony of the Evangelists, 60).
Galatians 3:12
In this context Paul establishes first that those who do not keep all of the Mosaic Law fall under its curse (Gal 3:10 citing Dt 27:26). To this he opposes Habakkuk 2:4, “The righteous shall live by faith” (Gal 3:11). This observation is in service of the argument that “no one is justified before God by the law” (3:11) since “The law is not of faith” (3:12). To establish the provided alternative (and impossible, cf. 3:10) path to eternal life, Paul quotes Leviticus 18:5, “The one who does them shall live by them.”
Bryan Estelle observes, “When we come to Paul’s use of these terms and explore the context in which he understood the promise of life conditioned upon obedience, he clearly parsed that ‘life’ as ‘the life of eternity’ or ‘the world to come'” (“Leviticus 18:5 and Deuteronomy 30:1-14 in Biblical Theological Development,” in The Law Is Not of Faith, 110).
Some claim that when Paul cites Leviticus 18:5 he is doing to so to critique a misinterpretation of the verse (Sklar, TOTC, 229). However, Paul was not citing a misinterpretation of Leviticus 18:5 but was citing the verse itself. In context, Paul was contrasting the Mosaic and new covenants. He could do this by quoting verses from the Pentateuch because the Mosaic writings contain not only the provisions of the Mosaic covenant but statements of its inadequacy (due to human sinfulness) and predictions of the coming new covenant and its provisions. In addition, what Sklar identified as a misinterpretation seems to be the interpretation Jesus gave to the verse in Luke 10:28.
Romans 10:5
In context Paul is discussing two ways of pursing righteousness. The Gentiles pursued righteousness by faith and attained it, but the Jews pursued righteousness by works and stumbled over the stumbling stone, that is Christ. By seeking to establish their own righteousness, they did not receive Christ’s righteousness. They failed to see that Christ was the end (the fulfillment, terminus, and completer) of the law for the purpose of bringing righteousness to everyone who believes. In other words, justification through faith in Christ is what the Mosaic Law was always pointing to and the coming of Christ brought the Mosaic law to a point of completion.
In Romans 10:5-9 Paul establishes his argument with Scripture. He quotes Leviticus 18:5 to establish that the Mosaic covenant promised righteousness and eternal life based on doing the commandments. To this he opposes Deuteronomy 30, in which the people are told that the word of faith can bring them salvation. Paul is not pitting Moses against himself here. In context Deuteronomy 30 establishes that the Mosaic covenant would not save the Israelites; it predicted they would come under its covenant curses. Therefore, Deuteronomy 30 points the people forward to a coming new covenant, the benefits of which could be obtained by faith by anyone in any era who called on the Lord by faith.
Romans 7:10
Though Paul does not quote Leviticus 18:5 in Romans 7:10, the statement “the very commandment that promised life proved to be death to me” seems to allude to it (Rosner, Paul and the Law, NSBT, 66). Leviticus 18:5 was a promise of (eternal) life on the basis of obedience. However, as Paul makes clear in Romans 7, no one (other than Christ) is able to keep the Law and obtain life by that promise.
Proposed Interpretation of Leviticus 18:5
This verse promises eternal life upon obedience to the statutes and judgments of the Mosaic covenant. In fact, no one (except Christ) would ever be able to fulfill this requirement and thus no one would obtain salvation by this path. Something the Mosaic Law itself made clear. However, the “except Christ” is a very important exception. Christ was born under this Law, and he fulfilled it in our place.
Objections to the Proposed Interpretation of Leviticus 18:5
Obj. 1: The claim that eternal life is promised upon obedience to the Law is contrary to the doctrine of justification by faith alone
Mark Rooker observes that verse 5 ” has been interpreted as rewarding salvation to those who keep the commandments,” but he rejects this interpretation on the grounds that it is “in conflict with the doctrine of justification by faith” (NAC, 240).
Ans. Galatians 3:12 and Romans 10:5 cite this verse as pointing to a way of justification by the works of the law. These passages are clear that no one will actually be justified in this way. But it is nonetheless presented as a hypothetical way of obtaining righteousness.
Obj. 2: Israel had already been graciously redeemed by Yhwh
This is how Jay Sklar argues: “It is crucial to understand that this verse does not mean the Israelites were to earn relationship with the Lord through their obedience. The larger context makes clear that the Lord gives the Israelites the law after he redeemed them (cf. Exod. 1–19 with Exod. 20–23). The law regulates this relationship; it does not create it. As in the New Testament, relationship with the Lord is always grounded in his gracious redemption (cf. Rom. 5:8)” (Sklar, TOTC, 229).
Ans. This is to confuse the type and the reality. Physically and typologically Israel had been redeemed from slavery in Egypt. The very structure of the exodus account reveals that the physically and typologically redeemed Israelites still stand in need of redemption.
Exodus 15:1-21 marks the end of Israel’s redemption from Egypt. These verses mark the beginning of a transitional section between that redemption and the giving of the Mosaic covenant (ch 19ff.). This transitional section begins with three pericopes in which the people are grumbling against Yhwh and against Moses regarding food and water. These three pericopes reveal that even though Israel was physically redeemed from Egypt, the Israelites were still in need of new hearts. They still needed redemption from sin.
At the end of the first of these grumbling pericopes, the text provides a brief preview of the Mosaic covenant: “There Yhwh made for them a statute and a rule, and there he tested them, saying, ‘If you will diligently listen to the voice of Yhwh your God, and do that which is right in his eyes, and give ear to his commandments and keep all his statutes, I will put none of the diseases on you that I put on the Egyptians, for I am Yhwh, your healer'” (ESV, adj.).
Note the conditional nature of the statement: If Israel keeps Yhwh’s law, then God will keep the judgments of Egypt from Israel. The implication is that if Israel does not keep Yhwh’s law they will receive the judgments of Egypt themselves. A case and point would be the locust plague Israel experienced as recorded in Joel 1.
Note also Yhwh’s identification of himself at the end of this statement, “for I am Yhwh, your healer.” This is given as a reason for why Yhwh will not bring the diseases of Egypt upon Israel. It is not a statement that Yhwh will heal Israel from these diseases.
The fact that this pericope is followed by two more in which Israel grumbles at Yhwh demonstrates that the nation did not come to Yhwh for healing. Israel’s rebellion at the golden calf incident and in Numbers shows that Israel still remained in need of healing.
Jason DeRouchie observes, “By Leviticus 18, the narrator has highlighted how the people have tested God seven times since leaving Egypt, and by the time the ten spies fail to believe the Lord, the total testings would be ten (Num 14:21–23).24 Thus, Moses rightly labels them “stubborn” (Exod 32:9; 33:3, 5; 34:9; Deut 9:6, 13; 10:16; 31:27), “unbelieving” (Num 14:11; Deut 1:32; 9:23; cf. 28:66), and “rebellious” (Num 20:10, 24; 27:14; Deut 9:7, 24; 31:27; cf. 1:26, 43; 9:23). … The cry, “Do this law so that you may live!” came to a primarily unregenerated community” (“The Use of Leviticus 18:5 in Galatians 3:!2,” Them 45 [2020]: 248).
Thus, the Israelites whom Moses addressed in Leviticus 18:5 were still in need of eternal life.
Obj. 3: The sacrificial system would have dealt with the problem of imperfect obedience, thus enabling the Israelites to keep Leviticus 18:5
Jason DeRouchie responds to this claim by observing, “If, as I have argued, most original recipients of Moses’s words were unregenerate, a call to “do in order to live” would have resulted in nothing less than a type of legalism for the majority, as the ‘gracious character of the Levitical system’ would be inoperative without the feeling of guilt, confession, and trust (Lev 5:5–6; Num 5:6–7)” (“The Use of Leviticus 18:5 in Galatians 3:!2,” Them 45 [2020]: 251, quoting Jim Hamilton to critique his view).
The regenerate in Israel were to continue to practice the sacrifical system, but they should have realized that repeated animal sacrifices could not ultimately atone for their sin. They should have been looking forward to the new covenant sacrifice of the promised Seed.
Obj. 4: An offer of eternal life based on obedience to the law cannot be made because the Israelites (and all mankind) are already born sinners as a result of Adam’s sin
Ans. 1: In actual fact no sinner would be saved by their personal obedience to the Mosaic law because no sinner could meet the requirement of this covenant. However, this very fact reinforces the inability of sinners to be saved by the works of the Law.
Ans. 2: The New Testament does not present Christ as being born under the Adamic covenant and keeping the requirements of the Adamic covenant in our place for salvation. That covenant was already broken by Adam. The New Testament presents Christ as being born under the Mosaic Law and keeping the requirements of the Mosaic Law for our salvation (Gal 4:4). if obedience to the Mosaic Law could not bring salvation, how could Christ’s obedience to that Law bring us salvation?
Obj 5: The Mosaic Covenant is an administration of the covenant of grace and thus cannot be a works covenant
Ans. 1: This presumes that there is a single overarching covenant of grace of which all the biblical covenants (save the Adamic covenant) are administrations. However, there are several factors opposed to this presumption. (1) It is difficult to establish the single, overarching covenant of grace position exegetically. (2) There is significant exegetical evidence for the Mosaic covenant as being in some way a works covenant, and while there are various ways to integrate this evidence into an overarching covenant of grace view, the exegetical data and theological construction do stand in some tension with each other. (3) There are better models which better account for the data.
Ans. 2: There are ways for those who hold to a unitary covenant of grace to hold that the Mosaic Covenant is in some sense a covenant of works. These approaches have their own complications, but it allows certain covenant theologians to handle the exegetical data of Leviticus 18:5 and its co-texts well without abandoning their system of covenant theology.
Unless otherwise noted, Scripture quotations are from the ESV.
The quotation of a source above does not mean that source is complete agreement with the arguement I am making. For instance, Calvin’s views of law and covenant have some complexity to them. Likewise, Estelle’s view is complicated; he holds that the “temporal life promised in the Mosaic covenant portended and typified the greater ‘eternal life'” but that this is not “merely and exclusively a typological arrangement.” (“Leviticus 18:5 and Deuteronomy 30:1-14 in Biblical Theological Development,” in The Law Is Not of Faith, 118).