In discussions of theology, it has become commonplace to talk about two horizons in interpretation: the horizon of the text and the horizon of the interpreter or the interpreting community. This has led in some cases to a radical skepticism concerning the possibility of producing stable and reliable interpretations. We may share the same text, but if I am a man and you are a woman, or I am white and you are black, is there anything more than our starting point—the text itself—to connect our interpretations? And is it possible to compare your interpretation with min and decide which of us, if either, has produced a more accurate account of what the text actually says or does?

If we understand human nature as fixed, as something which is not constructed by the individual or by the community but something which is given by God in his address to us, then we are on much more secure ground in moving theological statements from one time, place, or culture to another. Human nature is something which is more basic than gender, glass, culture, location, or time. It cannot be reduced to or contained within a specific context such as to isolate it from all else. This is not to deny that context has a huge impact upon who we are and how we think; it is simply to say that all of these particulars that make individuals unique and allow us to differentiate one person from another are relativized by the universal reality of human nature that binds us all together.

Human beings remain essentially the same in terms of their basic nature as those made in God’s image and addressed by his word even as we move from place to place and from generation to generation. God remains the same; his image remains the same; his address to us remains the same. . . .

In short, a biblical understanding of human nature as a universal will temper any talk that seeks to dismiss theological statements from the past on the simplistic ground that there is nothing in common between us and the people who wrote them.

Carl R. Trueman, The Creedal Imperative (Wheaton: Crossway, 2012), 62-63.

Books

Plato, The Trial and Death of Socrates. 3rd edition. Translated by G. M. A. Grube. Revised by John M. Cooper. Indianapolis: Hackett, 2000.

Includes the dialogues Apology, the Euthyphro, the Crito, and the death scene from the Phaedo. As the title to this collection indicates, all four of these works deal with the trial and death of Socrates. They seem to be a good introduction to the Socratic method.

Rutledge, Fleming. The Battle for Middle-earth: Tolkien’s Divine Design in The Lord of the Rings. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 2004.

Rutledge maintains that beneath the storylines of The Hobbit and The Lord of the Rings Tolkien communicated a spiritual message. Rutledge’s thesis is most convincing when she demonstrates that ways in which Tolkien’s basic worldview shaped the story. For instance, she rightly highlights the theme of providence that runs throughout these works. She is less convincing when she tries her hand at allegory. Did Tolkien really intend the rangers of Ithilien to represent the base communities of South American liberation theology? (And why did all political applications of Tolkien’s work hew to the left?) Overall Rutledge is often insightful though frequently misguided.

Van Asselt, Willem J., ed. Introduction to Reformed Scholasticism. Translated by Albert Gootjes. Grand Rapids: Reformation Heritage Books, 2011.

This book would certainly interest any student of church history interested in theology in the post-Reformation era. However, the book has relevance also to those with little interest in either Reformed theology or post-Reformation scholasticism. Neo-orthodox theologians often caricatured Reformed Scholastics as being dry, rationalistic, rigid, and propositional as opposed to being warm, exegetical, and personal. Since the scholastics, both Lutheran and Reformed, refined and established the orthodox doctrines of inspiration and inerrancy (received by Fundamentalists via Old Princeton), neo-orthodox theologians often used their caricature to attack the doctrine of inerrancy. Though inerrancy is not the focus of this volume, Van Asselt and the other contributors to this book do an admirable job of setting the Reformed Scholastics in their historical context and in demonstrating the neo-orthodox caricature to be false.

Ward, Michael. Planet Narnia: The Seven Heavens in the Imagination of C. S. Lewis. New York: Oxford University Press, 2008.

C. S. Lewis’s Narnia Chronicles have often been criticized for not being as carefully crafted or coherent as Tolkien’s fantastic creations. Critics have wondered why the Narnians have a Christmas or why Bacchus appears at the liberation of Narnia from Miraz. Ward argues that Lewis did have a coherent vision for these books: each book is intended to evoke one of the seven medieval planets. For instance, The Lion, the Witch, and the Wardrobe was meant to evoke the spirit of Jupiter, Prince Caspian that of Mars, and so on. Ward demonstrates the plausibility of this thesis by demonstrating the importance of the medieval view of the heavens to Lewis in his scholarly writings, his poetry, and his other fiction (especially the Space Trilogy). Ward is able to demonstrate from these writings that Lewis had definite ideas about what each of the planets was intended to represent or evoke. He then seeks to connect each of the Chronicles with one of these planets. Ward is at his most convincing when he can show that his thesis can explain the presence of incongruous material in the Chronicles. The major obstacle to Ward’s thesis (which he does address) is the lack of any documentary evidence that Lewis really intended what Ward says he did. One other caution (made, I believe, by Alan Jacobs) is that Ward’s thesis should be seen as illuminating one aspect of the Chronicles rather than the key that unlocks the whole.

Howe, Daniel Walker. What Hath God Wrought: The Transformation of America, 1815-1848. The Oxford History of the United States. Edited by David M. Kennedy. New York: Oxford University Press, 2007.

Howe’s book is another excellent entry in the Oxford History of the United States series. Howe does not quite measure up to the works of Wood and McPherson, which flank it, but it is nonetheless and excellent work. Positively, he gives religion significant coverage in his history, but, negatively, his summaries of American religion were not always accurate. More difficult to evaluate is Howe’s evident bias for John Quincy Adams (the book is dedicated to him) and against Andrew Jackson. Howe, I believe, is correct in his moral evaluations of these two men (as well as in his negative evaluation of Polk). Furthermore, I believe moral evaluation is appropriate in historical works. Nonetheless, I felt the need to turn to Remini and Wilentz to get a better understanding of the "other side," as it were. I’m glad I bought Howe, and I’m glad a library was available in which I could refer to the other two works.

Habel, Norman C. The Land is Mine: Six Biblical Land Ideologies. Minneapolis: Fortress, 1995.

Carson’s critique of Niebuhr’s Christ and Culture could easily be adapted to Habel. Habel finds competing land ideologies in different parts of Scripture. As Carson notes with regard to Niebuhr, this prompts "questions about whether they are alternatives or components of a bigger pattern—a pattern that begins to emerge when we follow the Bible’s story line in the categories of biblical theology." It can also raise questions about how accurately Habel is reading the text in some instances. I found the book to have some helpful insights on particular passages here and there, but overall Habel’s conception of the nature of Scripture distorts his approach to Scripture.

Payton, James R., Jr. Irenaeus on the Christian Faith: A Condensation of Against Heresies. Eugene, OR: Pickwick, 2011 [Introduction, Books 4 and 5 of Against Heresies, with some supplementation from ANF]

Payton realized that much of the helpful theological material in Against Heresies remains inaccessibly buried to most Christians. The recitation of Gnostic beliefs in the first several books of Against Heresies discourage readers from pushing forward to theologically rich passages. Furthermore, until recently Against Heresies was only available in an older 19th century translation (the more recent translation in the ACW series remains incomplete).

Payton seeks to remedy these defects by updating the language and style of the older translation and by excising Irenaeus’s detailed discussions of Gnosticism and leaving behind his theologically rich teaching.

In books 4 and 5 Irenaeus covers such matters as the law and the Christian, the relation of Israel and the church, the relation of the two testaments, the incarnation, the nature of man, the resurrection, election and free will, eternal punishment, and the restoration of creation.

Irenaeus of Lyons. Proof Of The Apostolic Preaching. Ancient Christian Writers. Edited and translated by Joseph P. Smith. New York: Paulist, 1952.

In this work Irenaeus first traces out the storyline of Scripture under the headings of Creation, Fall, and Redemption. He then examines Old Testament prophecies of the Messiah and the transformation brought about the New Covenant. This is a very enjoyable read. Though not a biblical theology in the modern sense it has some affinities with the kind of biblical theology that traces out the storyline of Scripture.

Holmes, Michael W. The Apostolic Fathers: Greek Texts and English Translations. 3rd ed. Grand Rapids: Baker, 2007.

The Apostolic Fathers preserve the writings of those who followed the apostles. The most edifying of these books are First Clement and the Letter to Diognetus. The least edifying are probably The Epistle of Barnabas and The Shepherd of Hermas. Works like the letters of Ignatius fall in between. I’ve never found these letters particularly engaging. However, in this last time through them it occurred to me that the thesis that these letters represent the emergence of an episcopalian form of government may be incorrect. It seems to me that it is just as reasonable to understand Ignatius to be describing a form of government in which one overseer exists as primus inter pares with the other elders of an assembly. If so, then Ignatius may reflect continuity with the New Testament rather than a departure from it.

Guthrie, George H. The Structure of Hebrews: A Text-Linguistic Analysis. Grand Rapids: Baker, 1994.

This book provides a very helpful introduction to text-linguistics / discourse analysis combined with an proposal about the structure of Hebrews that is overall quite convincing. In brief, Guthrie posits and interweaving of expositional and exhortational sections in Hebrews. These various sections are demarked and linked with variety of devices (e.g., inclusio, hook words). The expositional sections follow this line of reasoning: "The Son Superior to the Angels (1:5-14) → The Son Became Lower than the Angels (i.e., Among Men) to Deliver Men from Sin (2:10-18) → The Son, on the Basis of His Identification with Men, is Taken from Among Men and Appointed as High Priest (5:1-7:28) → Because of His Appointment, He is Able to Offer a Superior Offering in Heaven (8:3-10:18)" (Based on Fig. 30, Guthrie, Structure of Hebrews, 127; text taken from figure verbatim; structure of figure not preserved). Central to the exhortational sections are the five passages in Hebrews that warn against apostasy from God’s Word.

The other exhortational sections come in four groups: 3:1-4:11, faithfulness; 5:11-6:3 and 6:9-12, reason for warning, reason for hope; 10:32-12:24, endurance; ch. 13 concluding exhortations. The exhortational sections are all linked closely with the warnings. 3:1-4:11 has warning passages on either side of it. The same is true of the third group, 10:32-12:24. The second group has a warning passage in its midst. The fourth group follows a warning passage. When put together, it becomes clear that the exposition focuses on the Son: his superiority, his humiliation, his priestly office, and his priestly work. The exhortations focus on warnings against turning away for the word or message that God has entrusted to them and on admonitions toward faithfulness and endurance in their faith. The teaching about the Son provides the doctrinal foundation for the exhortations.

Liederbach, Mark and Seth Bible. True North: Christ, the Gospel, and Creation Care. Nashville: B&H, 2012.

The authors decided to write this book after attending two conferences on evangelicals and the environment. They noticed the absence of Scripture in the presentations. When present the Scripture was used in a superficial way. This book is not designed to address the scientific aspects to the debate. Rather it is intended to lay a biblical and ethical foundation. The authors’ overall argument is sound, but some of their exegesis is left wanting (e.g., finding the Trinity in the plural Elohim; their interpretation of Gen. 2:15).

Articles

Locke, John. "A Letter Concerning Toleration." In Locke, Berkeley, Hume. Great Books of the Western World. Edited by Robert Maynard Hutchins. Chicago: Encylcopaedia Britannica, 1952.

Locke argues that a commonwealth should be concerned about securing the "civil interests" of a society and not religious interests. Lock says that magistrates do not have power in the area of religion because (1) God did not grant them this authority, (2) true religion is a matter of heart persuasion while a magistrate can only use force, and (3) laws cannot save souls. On the other hand he takes the church to be a "voluntary society" that gathers for "the public worshipping of God." As a voluntary society the church may only regulate the lives of those who join with it. Furthermore, he limits the interests of the to "the salvation of souls" and says "it in no way concerns the commonwealth." The church many excommunicate, but it cannot exact civil penalties, or deprive a person of his rights or property. The magistrate likewise cannot interfere with the rights of worship except as they would touch on his normal sphere of influence (e.g., he may prohibit child sacrifice because this is something the state would allow no private person to practice). But the magistrate is not responsible to punish every sin but only the sins that affect the commonwealth. His only goal is the prosperity of the commonwealth. Locke raises the question of the magistrate legislating something contrary to a person’s conscience. Locke says that this will rarely happen, but if it does the person should submit to the law or its consequences. Locke, however, does not extend toleration to the atheist, for he holds that atheism undermines all civil society.

Locke gets many things right in this letter, but he wrongly restricts the interests of the church to the salvation of souls alone. The church is also concerned about the discipleship of people in every area of life. This means that that conflicts between conscience and law are more frequent than Locke anticipated (especially as societies become more pluralistic and different moral codes strive to influence the laws).

Douglas J. Moo, “Nature in the New Creation: New Testament Eschatology and the Environment.” Journal of the Evangelical Theological Society 49, no. 3 (September 2006): 477-81.

Moo notes in the article’s introduction that Christians are often (wrongly) accused of a theology that undermines responsible environmental action. He concedes, however, that little has been done to develop a NT theology of nature (more has been done in the OT). Moo begins with Romans 8:19-22, which he understands to affirm that the natural world will be redeemed, as Isaiah predicted it would be, when God’s people are glorified. Moo concedes that Paul’s affirmation of the natural world’s redemption seems in tension with Revelation 21 and 2 Peter 3, which seem to describe the anihilation of the world. But Moo counters this reading. Language of heaven and earth fleeing or passing away need not describe the passing of the physical world. Likewise λυω words need not indicate annihilation (evangelical scholars rightly resist this conclusion when applied to humans and eternal punishment). Though Moo does not deny a fiery judgment at the end, he notes this does not mean the earth is annihilated. Here the Flood serves as a parallel. Positively, God states in Revelation 21:5, "I am making everything new." Moo notes that this favors restoration over replacement. He concludes that the resurrection body is the best analogue. Moo next turns to Colossians 1:20. He critiques the sloppy application of this verse to environmental concerns. He concludes that the verse is predicting the bringing about of universal shalom. This is "secured in principle" by Christ’s crucigixion, but it is not yet established. Moo concedes that the natural world is not at the forefront of Paul’s teaching in this passage, but he does believe it is included. Moo next turns to Gal. 6:15 and 2 Cor. 5:17. Though, again, these passages focus on human transformation, Moo believes that this is part of a broader renewal of all creation (indicated by the terminology of "new creation" as opposed to "new creature" and by the influence of language from Isa. 43:18-21 on 2 Cor. 5:17. Finally, Moo turns to the themes of Dominion, stewardship, and the image of God. Moo concludes that the dominion mandate makes human management of the creation inevitable. Moo holds that stewardship is a good description of the kind of dominion exercised. The image of God in man is understood by Moo as relational, and he includes man’s relation with creation to be part of that image. The fallen image is restored as right relationships are restored.

Moo draws the following conclusions from his survey of these key New Testament texts. First, the natural world is not at the forefront of New Testament teaching, but it is connected to important aspects of God’s redemptive work. Second, Moo rejects the idea that a futurist eschatology undermines Christian environmental stewardship. Third, holding to a renewal of the earth (rather than its annihilation and replacement) does elevate the importance of the creation. Moo concludes that Christians should be committed to a restoration of creation, while also recognizing that "ultimate success" will come only with Christ’s return. Fourth, love for God and other humans should motivate Christian environmental concerns. Fifth, Christians need wisdom in environmental matters. The dominion mandate means that Christians cannot be hostile toward technology and yet must also manage the earth’s resources well. Wisdom is needed to know when "intervention" or "conservation" is the best way to steward creation. Finally, Moo notes that inasmuch as materialism and hedonism contribute to environmental harm, that Christians should be at the forefront of those who model a new way of living.

Von Rad, Gerhard. "The Promised Land and Yahweh’s Land in the Hexateuch." In The Problem of the Hexateuch and Other Essays. Translated by E. W. Trueman Dicken. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1966.

Sadly, von Rad spends his time chasing phantasmal sources and relating the land theme to these sources. As a result he says very little of theological value in this essay.

Books

Falls, Thomas B., ed. and trans. Writings of Saint Justin Martyr. The Fathers of the Church. Edited by Hermigild Dressler. Washington, DC: Catholic University of America Press, 1948.

Justin begins his first apology with the argument that Christians should not be judged simply for bearing the name Christian. If they are to be judged, it should be for real wrongdoing. He then makes the argument that Christians are actually good citizens. In the remainder of the discourse Justin demonstrates how Christ fulfilled OT prophecies. He also deals with similarities between Christianity and pagan philosophy and myths. He claims that pagan myths were inspired by demons who knew of the prophesies of Christ. The second apology is a brief petition on behalf of a Christian who has just been sentenced to death.

The Dialogue with Trypho is a lengthy, styled dialogue between Justin and a Jew named Trypho (though Trypho speaks little). Much of the dialogue is taken up with application of OT prophecy to Christ. Justin’s conclusions are often sound, but his exegesis and reasoning is often flawed. For instance, he rightly concludes that the non-moral aspects of the Mosaic law are not binding on Gentiles, but he reasons that this is because the Mosaic law was given to Israel because of its persistent sin and is therefore a bad law given as a punishment (Eze. 20:25-26; but see Block, NICOT 1:636-41; Alexander, EBC, 836).

Irenaeus of Lyon. Against the Heresies: Book 1. Translated and Edited by Dominic J. Unger and John J. Dillon. New York: Newman Press, 1992.

The first book of Against the Heresies is largely an account of the heresies that the church faced in the time of Irenaeus. These are complicated and sometimes incomprehensible. a benefit of wading through them, however, is the recognition that completely implausible false teaching can seem quite persuasive in a given time and place while, in truth, being entirely empty. This is worth remembering when contemporary heresies seem formidable.

In terms of positive contributions to Christian theology, chapters 8-10 are the most significant. In general, Irenaeus is arguing that the Gnostics wrest Scripture from its context. He uses engaging illustrations to expose what the heretics do with Scripture: a mosaic of a king which is rearranged into the image of a fox; lines taken from throughout Homer and rearranged into a new poem. Interestingly, Irenaeus’s conclusion is not that one should investigate the contexts of the phrases the Gnostics wrest to their own ends, but rather that the rule of truth should be used as a template for performing the restoration. He states this rule of truth in 1.10.1 and 1.22.1. In support of the rule, Irenaeus argues that it is the truth confessed by the church in all parts of the world.

Irenaeus’s argument makes sense in its time. Why wrangle over the exegesis of texts with the heretics if one has the slam dunk argument that the church is unified in its teaching against the heretics (cf. Tertullian, The Prescription against Heretics, ch. 19). This approach would, however, bear bad fruit as church tradition began to diverge from apostolic teaching.

Irenaeus of Lyon. Against the Heresies: Book 2. Translated and Edited by Dominic J. Unger and John J. Dillon. New York: Newman Press, 2012.

Book one describes the heresies faced by the church in the time of Irenaeus. Book two begins a response to these heresies. In much of this book Irenaeus is simply pointing out contradictions and absurdities in the heretical doctrines, but there are several places in which he engages the heretics theologically and thus offers some positive statement regarding Christian doctrine:

• Monotheism: 2.16.3
• God the Creator and his creation: 2.1.1; 2.2.4-5; 2.3.2, 5-4; 2.11.1; 2.28.1
• Attributes of God:
  • Omnipotence, invisibility, sovereignty: 2.6.1-2
  • Divine simplicity and impassibility: 2.13.3
  • Divine transcendence: 2.13.4
• Natural revelation: 2.9.1
• Eternal generation of the Son: 2.28.6
• Recapitulation (Jesus passed through every stage of life): 2.22.4, 5
• Christ truly suffered: 2.20.3
• Offer of salvation: 2.22.2
• Infant baptism? (some think this is implied in a statement that refers to infants being born again): 2.22.4
• Ethics (Irenaeus deals with the heretics’ justification their sin): 2.32
• Against the transmigration of souls 2.33
• On the soul and the intermediate state 2.34
• Resurrection 2.29.2
• Eternal punishment 2.28.7
• Right interpretation of Scripture (warnings against basing doctrine on parables contrary to clear teachings of Scripture): 2.27
• Example of an erroneous tradition (Irenaeus claims that the Gospels (cf. John 8:56-57; AH 2.22.6), and the elders in Asia (who passed on a tradition from the apostle John, and others teach that Jesus lived to his fortieth year before dying): 2.22.5
• Mystery in theology: 2.25.3-4; 2.28
• Love in theology (Love of God is more important than knowledge, for love builds up and knowledge puffs up. Irenaeus clarifies that this is not a polemic against true knowledge, for Paul is an example of one with true knowledge; Irenaeus opposes speculative knowledge that does not tend to increase love toward God or others): 2.26

Irenaeus of Lyon. Against the Heresies: Book 3. Translated and Edited by Dominic J. Unger and Irenaeus M. C. Steenberg. New York: Newman Press, 2012.

Book 3 of Against the Heresies is much more focused on positively stating Christian doctrine. Most of book 3 deals with Scripture proofs that counteract the heretics. But before engaging in the heretics on with Scripture itself Irenaeus makes the case that the Gospels contain accurate tradition from the apostles and that the oral tradition preserved in the orthodox church faithfully preserved apostolic teaching. This leads to an interesting discussion about the composition of the Gospels (including order of composition: Matthew, Luke, Mark) in chapter 1 and about the succession of the bishops of Rome in chapter 2. Irenaeus’s discussion of Scripture and tradition set the church down a trajectory that would need to be corrected by the Reformation. Two things should be noted in Irenaeus’s defense. First, his argument made good sense in its time—in general the church did preserve a more accurate tradition of apostolic teaching than the heretics (though this tradition was not always accurate, see 2.22.5-6). Second, Irenaeus locates apostolic tradition, in the first place, in the written Gospels, and he bases his arguments on Scripture.

The main thrust of book 3 is that there is only one God and that Jesus is the same God as the Father. Noteworthy passages in book 3 are the discussion of the various OT covenants (3.11.8) and the discussion of the virgin birth prophecy of Isa 7 (3.12). A discussion of Irenaeus’s distinctive doctrine of recapitulation takes place in 3.23.

Note especially Irenaues’s comments about the manifest authority of the four Gospels: "Now, the authority of these Gospels is so great that the heretics themselves bear witness to them, and each one of them tries to establish his doctrine with the Gospels as a starting point. The Ebionites use only the Gospel of Matthew. . . . Marcion, on the other hand, mutilated the gospel according to Luke. . . . Those, however, who prefer the Gospel of Mark and divide Jesus from Christ, and assert that Christ remained impassible but that Jesus suffered, can be corrected if they read this Gospel with a love for the truth. Finally, the followers of Valentinus, who make very ample use of the Gospel according to John . . ." 3.11.7

Hart, Jeffrey. The Making of the American Conservative Mind: National Review and Its Times. Wilmington, Del.: ISI Books, 2005.

Hart provides an interesting view of post-WWII conservatism in the United States. Perhaps most interesting are his discussions of the various strands of conservatism and their varying visions of life. Hart himself opposes all forms of utopianism. He believes that the nation-state, though imperfect, is a necessary good. Along with this he believes that national defense is also necessary; it is utopian to think otherwise. But he also thinks it is utopian to think the United States can use its military power to bring democracy to the world. He prefers constitutional government to majority rule; Hart is not overly sympathetic to populism. He favors free-market economies—but not when they become a utopian ideal that overrules all other values. Hart believes that the conservative should value beauty and should seek to conserve good literature, art, architecture, and nature. Hart favors traditional religion (he is himself a Catholic, but not one who accepts the infallibility of the magisterium); he denies that evangelical religion is conservative, and he prefers a libertarian stance on moral issues. Thus while he grants that Roe v. Wade "was certainly an example of judicial overreach," he also avers that "simply to pull an abstract ‘right to life’ out of the Declaration of Independence, as some conservatives do, is not conservative but Jacobinical." He sees little value in seeking to overturn Roe v. Wade.

The value in Hart’s book is the unfolding of twentieth century (and now twenty-first century) conservatism by tracing the various competing strands of conservatism, and the debates among these strands, at National Review. For the Christian it is worth considering that some of these strands are more and less compatible with Scripture.

Articles

McClain, Alva J. "The Greatness of the Kingdom Part I," BibSac 112, no. 445 (Jan 1955): 11-27.

McClain, Alva J. "The Greatness of the Kingdom Part II: Mediatorial Kingdom in Old Testament Prophecy," BibSac 112, no. 446 (Apr 1955): 107-124.

McClain, Alva J. "The Greatness of the Kingdom Part III," BibSac 112, no. 447 (Jul 1955): 209-224.

McClain, Alva J. "The Greatness of the Kingdom Part IV: The Mediatorial Kingdom from the Acts Period to the Eternal State." BibSac 112, no. 448 (Oct 1955): 304-10.

Summary

McClain defines the kingdom of God as "the rule of God over his creation" (13). OT kingdom teaching reveals a number of paradoxes related to the kingdom: it "always existed," but it has "a definite historical beginning. It encompasses all creation, but it can be located at specific times and places on earth; God rules "directly," and God rules "through a mediator;" the kingdom exists because of the "sovereign nature of Deity," and the kingdom is grounded on the Davidic covenant (13). McClain distinguishes the two aspects of the kingdom represented by these contrasting statements as universal and mediatorial. The focus of McClain’s discussion in these articles is the mediatorial kingdom.

In McClain’s view the mediatorial kingdom is focused on the redemption of the human race, and eventually the cosmos. The "mediatorial ruler is always a member of the human race" (18).

Though the mediatorial kingdom had antecedents in the patriarchal families, McClain places the establishment of the mediatorial kingdom at Sinai. This kingdom eventually fails because the hearts of the people were not transformed by the law and because the rulers did not have the perfection needed. Thus the prophets look forward to "an age when the laws of the kingdom will be written in the hearts of its citizens (Jer. 31:33), and its mediatorial Ruler will be perfect in his character, wisdom and ways (Isa. 11:1-4)" (27).

According to McClain, the Old Testament prophets predict "a revival and restoration of the Old Testament kingdom of history" (cf. Mic 4:1, 7-8; Amos 9:11) (114). The re-establishment of the kingdom will be "sudden" and "immediate," its ruler will be both God and man, and his rule will be a monarchy that will bring about justice (115-18). The kingdom’s extent will be world-wide and it will spiritual, ethical, social, economic, political, ecclesiastical, and physical (both in terms of personal health and in terms of the earth’s fecundity) effects (118-23).

McClain finds this same far-reaching kingdom with these far reaching effects declared as at hand by John and Jesus. The kingdom is at hand because the king is presents, but the kingdom is still "contingent." When the kingdom is rejected, Jesus outlines in parables " the future of the kingdom in the peculiar form (hitherto unrevealed) which it will assume during the temporary period of Israel’s rejection" (217). Also, only after the rejection of the kingdom does Christ begin to teach about the church. Jesus then proceeds to Jerusalem, offers himself as the king, and is rejected.

After the resurrection, Jesus spends forty days teaching the apostles about the kingdom. According to McClain, the kingdom is still being offered in the book of Acts, though the church is also taking root. As rejection to the kingdom continues, and as the church grows, the offer of the kingdom passes. McClain says this is why the signs and wonders tied to the offer of the kingdom have now passed away.

At present the kingdom is found on earth only in the sense that "God is engaged in selecting and preparing a people who are to be the spiritual nucleus of the established kingdom" (307). Christians are part of the kingdom, but the kingdom is not yet established. McClain rejects the idea that there is currently a "spiritual kingdom" and that in the future there will be a "visible kingdom" (308).

In McClain’s understanding, the mediatorial kingdom in all its aspects finds fulfillment in the millennium. Once the last enemy, death, is subdued "the purpose of [the] mediatorial kingdom will have been fulfilled" (310). Jesus will still reign, but he will reign no longer as the mediatorial king but as the divine Son with the other Persons of the Trinity.

Evaluation

McClain carefully constructed a plausible theology of the kingdom that takes into account the variety of biblical data about the kingdom. And yet, his proposition raises many questions.

Are the universal kingdom and the mediatorial kingdom really to aspects of the same kingdom? While mediatorial rulers gain the right to rule from God, the universal ruler, the "paradoxical truths outlined by McClain seem to point to two distinct, but related reigns. (This may be picky since McClain is fairly nuanced here.)

Is the mediatorial kingdom’s primary purpose redemptive? Working back from Hebrews 2:5-9 through Psalm 8 to Genesis 1:26-28, one is led to the conclusion that the messianic rule of Jesus is a fulfillment of the Creation Blessing. If this is so, then it seems that the mediatorial kingdom’s function is not limited to redemption (though the prophets make clear that in a fallen world, it includes redemptive purposes). If this is the case this kingdom need not end with the millennium.

Did the kingdom prophesied in the OT and proclaimed as at hand by John and Jesus exist in the Old Testament? While it is true that the Messianic reign has roots in the Davidic covenant, I hesitate to say that this kingdom existed in the Old Testament era. McClain does an excellent job in his section on the prophets detailing the full extent of the kingdom and its effects. These effects are no more than foreshadowed in the Old Testament.

Was the kingdom offered, rejected and postponed in Jesus’s ministry and in the early church? McClain’s affirmative answer here makes sense of the fact that the kingdom prophecies of the OT are not being fulfilled in their entirety at present. But there is another way of making sense of this fact: the kingdom was inaugurated at the first advent but its final consummation is delayed until the second advent. This option makes better sense of the affirmations regarding the fulfillment of kingdom promises that occur throughout Acts.

Thus instead of seeing, with McClain, a mediatorial kingdom in existence from the time of Moses until the exile, a kingdom which will remain in abeyance until the Second Coming, I would see no mediatorial kingdom in the Old Testament, the announcement of the kingdom’s nearness by John and a presence of the kingdom in the person of Christ. The kingdom is inaugurated in the death, resurrection, and ascension of Christ, but it will not be finally consummated until Christ returns.

Despite these differences, I still find McClain’s work helpful in a number of areas. He does helpfully distinguish the universal and mediatorial kingdom passages; his second article helpfully deals with some of O. T. Allis’s objections to premillennialism; his treatment of the "extensive nature of the kingdom" is masterful as is relation of each of the elements of OT kingdom prophecy with Jesus’s kingdom teaching; and his discussion of John 18:36 is also well done.

Millar, J. Gary. “Land.” New Dictionary of Biblical Theology. Downers Grove: InterVarsity, 2000. pp. 623-27.

God promised to give land to Abraham and his seed (Gen. 12:1-3; 13:14-16; 15:18-21; 17:8; 26:3, 4, 24; 28:3-4, 13-15; 35:9-12). God has the right to give the land to Israel because he owns the whole earth. Thus the land given to Israel is God’s land (Lev. 25:23; Deut. 32:43; Josh 22:19; Is. 14:2, 25; Jer. 2:7; Ezek. 36:5; 38:16; Joel 1:6; 32). God has entrusted the land it Israel in his grace to them (Deut. 1:20-21, 25, 35; 3:18, 20; 4:1, 40; 6:1, 10, 18; 7:1, 8, 12; 8:1, 18; 9:5; 10:11; 11:9, 21; 12:1; 19:8; 26:3, 15;27:3; 30:20; 31:7, 21, 23; 34:4). The description of the land as abundantly fruitful (an land "flowing with milk and honey") "guarantees the restoration of intimacy with God in terms which recall the description of Eden" (623).

Obedience to God’s law is a significant feature of the OT’s teaching about the land. "The land is the place where Israel has the opportunity to obey God’s commands" (Deut. 12:1; cf. 6:1; 26:1; 27:1-3) (624). The land could only be gained and retained if Israel is obedient (Lev. 26:32-39; Num 13-14; Deut 4, 27-30). Land for Israel represented its relationship with God. Land in Israel was inherited by the son, and occupation of the land indicated that Israel was God’s son.

The NT does not develop a theology of land to the extent that the OT does. In Millar’s view the relational idea of Christians receiving an inheritance from God is the primary use of this theme (see Matt. 5:5; 25:34; John 15; Col. 1:13-14; 1 Pet. 1:3-5; Heb. 4:1-11).

McKeown, J. "Land, Fertility, Famine." Dictionary of the Old Testament: Pentateuch. Edited by T. Desmond Alexander and David W. Baker. Downers Grove: InterVarsity, 2003. pp. 487-91

McKeown defines the semantic ranges of land words in the OT, highlights God’s sovereignty over land, its distribution, the expulsion of sinners. He notes the responsibilities given to mankind regarding the land in Genesis 1 and the fact that punishments for sin in Genesis 1-11 all relate to land. The land promises to Abraham are recounted. The gracious gift of the land along with the requirement for Israel’s obedience is noted. The significance of the Promised Land as a new Eden is noted, but with the caveat that problems caused sin must be regulated.

Williamson, P. R. "Land." In Dictionary of the Old Testament: Historical Books. Edited by Bill T. Arnold and H. G. M. Williamson. Downers Grove: InterVarsity, 2005. pp. 638-43.

Williamson notes that in the historical books, Israel’s history is told with primary reference to the land: how it is obtained, trespassed, secured, expanded, lost, and restored. Williamson also notes the theme of the land as Israel’s inheritance, the requirement of Israel’s obedience, and judgment in the form of invasion, famine, and exile. In the end, the historical books end "on a note of hope rather than one of fulfillment" (642).

Allison, Jr. D. C. "Land in Early Christianity." In Dictionary of the Later New Testament and Its Developments. Edited by Ralph P. Martin and Peter H. Davids. Downers Grove: InterVarsity, 1997. pp. 642-44.

Allison recognizes that the Old Testament and Second Temple literature taught that God would regather Israel to a new land. However, since the land texts in the NT do not specifically mention a renewed Israel, but instead point more generally to a renewed earth or a worldwide millennial reign, Allison concludes the land has become "a symbol of some transhistorical reality" (643)) In fact, "holy space is where Jesus Christ is (Ign. Smyrn. 8.2); and because as risen Lord he is free to move where he will, there can be no sacred as opposed to profane territory, no genuine ‘holy land.’ Christ’s ubiquity as a spiritual presence universalizes the notion of holy space and so inescapably relativizes the sanctity and significance of the land promised to Abraham’s descendants" (644). This seems to be a far-ranging conclusion based on pretty weak argumentation. Would it not be more reasonable to assume the Old Testament background in instances when the land theme arises, rather than assuming that it is rejected? This would especially be so in cases such as Luke 13:29; Matthew 19:28 ; and Revelation 20 in which there are clear OT parallels. Furthermore, a "literal messianic kingdom centered in Israel" is not mutually exclusive of "a new or renewed earth" (644). John Goldingay’s approach is sounder: "The New Testament’s silence on the theme of Israel may thus imply that this theme should be taken for granted, not that it should be rejected. . . . The New Testament makes explicit that in Christ the temple and the sacrificial system lose their literal significance. If it had meant to suggest that this happens with the promise of the land, it would have had to make this explicit, too. But while it once or twice applies the rest/inheritance motif to Jesus, it never directly suggests that the First Testament promise regarding the land is fulfilled in him. We might infer that this promise is one to which God says yes in Jesus not in the sense that his coming fulfills it but in the sense that his coming confirms it, guarantees that like all other promises it will be fulfilled. It could naturally follow that the positive purpose of God lies behind the Jews regaining a home for themselves in Palestine. God’s commitment to Israel had to find expression in seeing it has a home; otherwise it is not a commitment at all. The New Testament’s concern with the being of the Jewish people cannot but imply a concern with the land of Israel." John Goldingay, "What Is Israel’s Place in God’s Purpose?" in Key Questions about Christian Faith: Old Testament Answers (Grand Rapids: Baker, 2010), 200.

Janzen, W. "Land." The Anchor Bible Dictionary 4:143-154

In the Old Testament theology section Janzen’s most helpful comments are his summaries of the prophetic literature on the land (his treatment of the Pentateuch and Historical Books mirrors the content of other works). In the New Testament theology section, he sees affirmations of the OT land theology, abrogation of it (especially in Hebrews), symbolic use of it, and extension of it to the nations. Janzen’s analysis of the New Testament data is problematized by his failure to recognize a coherent theology within that Testament, much less a coherence between the testaments. Nonetheless, the article does gather a good amount of data together.

Allen, Ronald B. "The Land of Israel." In Israel: Land and the People. Edited by H. Wayne House. Grand Rapids: Kregel, 1998.

Allen argues the following in this essay: through the whole earth is the Lord’s, he has selected the land of Israel as his special possession, a place where he has chosen to accomplish the most significant acts in his work of Redemption. He has promised in covenant that this land is the possession of the nation/people of Israel. This is an unconditional promise ultimately, but there are conditions for particular generations enjoying it. Presently Israel does not meet those conditions, and thus cannot claim the land as a divine gift. It does have a legal right to the land according to international actions of the UN. The Christian should see God’s providential working in preserving the Jews and in opening a homeland for them even though the spiritual transformation of the people and the fullness of the promises to them are not yet accomplished.

Kaiser, Jr., Walter C. "The Land of Israel and the Future Return (Zechariah 10:6-12)." In Israel: Land and the People. Edited by H. Wayne House. Grand Rapids: Kregel, 1998.

Kaiser argues that Zechariah 10:6-12 confirms that the return to the land prophesied by Jeremiah and Ezekiel was not fulfilled in the returns documented in Ezra and Nehemiah. He also addresses arguments to the effect that the land promise was conditional (and thus has no future fulfillment), was given to Israel for a long period of time but not in perpetuity (and thus the promise has lapsed), or was abrogated or redirected by the NT.

Jelinek, John A. "The Dispersion and Restoration of Israel to the Land." In Israel: Land and the People. Edited by H. Wayne House. Grand Rapids: Kregel, 1998.

Jelinek investigates Leviticus 24 and Deuteronomy 28-30 as a basis for the Bible’s teaching about Israel’s exile and restoration. He then surveys teaching on these themes throughout the remainder of the Old and New Testaments. He concludes that the land promise to Israel was unconditional, that the covenant did stipulate exile for breaking the covenant, and that a restoration was promised to the nation. This restoration to the land involved a spiritual restoration with an inward circumcision of the heart that made obedience possible. The New Testament reveals that the Holy Spirit, the means of this internal circumcision, has been given. Israel as a whole remains unrepentant, however. Paul prophesies, however, the future conversion of the nation. This connects to the promises of restoration given earlier.

Muller, Richard A. “The Place and Importance of Karl Barth in the Twentieth Century: A Review Article.” Westminster Theological Journal 50, no. 1 (Spring 1988): 127-156.

After summarizing several books on Barth that emerged in the 1980s Muller evaluates Barth’s role as a theologian who mediated between liberals and conservatives. While acknowledging the draw that Barth has had on members of both groups, Muller concludes that Barth has actually constructed a new extreme rather than a mediating position. Muller concludes that Barth’s major value lies in his critiques of liberal theology and his call for conservatives the engage with issues raised in the modern world. But Muller does not find Barth’s theological position convincing: his theological exegesis often fails to truly exegete texts, his theology exists in the realm of words and concepts but distances itself from history and reality, and despite, Barth’s many discussions of the great tradition of the church, Barth "presents the tradition all too frequently only to deviate from it and, in so doing, points away from itself to treasures that are not its own."

Bolt, John. “The Greening of Spirituality : A Review Article.” Calvin Theological Journal 30, no. 1 (April 1, 1995): 194-211.

Bolt’s own conclusion summarizes his article nicely: "As this review has tried to show, the vast amount of literature on theology and ecology requires careful sorting and weighing. There is much that is interesting and valuable, there is far too much that is pagan and theologically goofy. In addition, there is also another caution that is called for, in my judgment. During the decade of the seventies, evangelical Christians became sensitive to the problem of poverty and hunger in the world. Ronald Sider’s Rich Christians in an Age of Hunger served as a manifesto of that concern. Two decades later it is fairly evident that Sider’s analysis and moderately socialist solutions to the problems of global poverty and hunger were seriously flawed. Many well-intentioned Christians enthusiastically signed on to bankrupt ideas with evangelical fervor. The irony here is that critiques of the Sider approach were available even then but not taken seriously. Facing a related but distinct problem in the global environmental crisis, the lessons of that mistake should not be lost. Specifically, Christians who are concerned as they should be about the integrity of creation and human stewardship of it, have an obligation to listen to Her Majesty’s loyal opposition in this matter. Become familiar with the divisions in the scientific community itself about the actual threats of environmental disaster. . . ."

Harmless, William. "Augustine the Bishop." In Augustine in His Own Words. Washington, DC: The Catholic University of America Press, 2010.

Harmless draws on Augustine’s own writings and on Possidius’s Vita to sketch Augustine’s ordination, episcopal duties, and retirement. The text is sometimes encouraging as it reveals Augustine’s piety and concern for doctrinal and personal purity. His wisdom in dealing with difficult situations is often on display. Yet the text is sometimes discouraging as the departure from a biblical church order along with various abuses that will grow out of that departure are clearly already developing.

But what is the motive, that enlivens the believer in the pursuit of more extended spiritual knowledge ? Is it that he may live upon the airy breath of human applause ? No, rather that he may praise his God with uprightness of heart. We always find, that as our mind is dark, our tongue is dumb, our lips are sealed, and we are unable to bear a testimony for our God. But when "he opens our understandings" to " learn his judgments," he will next " open our lips, and our mouths shall shew forth his praise."

Charles Bridges, Exposition of Psalm CXIX, as illustrative of the character and exercises of Christian experience, 15.