In discussions of theology, it has become commonplace to talk about two horizons in interpretation: the horizon of the text and the horizon of the interpreter or the interpreting community. This has led in some cases to a radical skepticism concerning the possibility of producing stable and reliable interpretations. We may share the same text, but if I am a man and you are a woman, or I am white and you are black, is there anything more than our starting point—the text itself—to connect our interpretations? And is it possible to compare your interpretation with min and decide which of us, if either, has produced a more accurate account of what the text actually says or does?

If we understand human nature as fixed, as something which is not constructed by the individual or by the community but something which is given by God in his address to us, then we are on much more secure ground in moving theological statements from one time, place, or culture to another. Human nature is something which is more basic than gender, glass, culture, location, or time. It cannot be reduced to or contained within a specific context such as to isolate it from all else. This is not to deny that context has a huge impact upon who we are and how we think; it is simply to say that all of these particulars that make individuals unique and allow us to differentiate one person from another are relativized by the universal reality of human nature that binds us all together.

Human beings remain essentially the same in terms of their basic nature as those made in God’s image and addressed by his word even as we move from place to place and from generation to generation. God remains the same; his image remains the same; his address to us remains the same. . . .

In short, a biblical understanding of human nature as a universal will temper any talk that seeks to dismiss theological statements from the past on the simplistic ground that there is nothing in common between us and the people who wrote them.

Carl R. Trueman, The Creedal Imperative (Wheaton: Crossway, 2012), 62-63.

Books

Plato, The Trial and Death of Socrates. 3rd edition. Translated by G. M. A. Grube. Revised by John M. Cooper. Indianapolis: Hackett, 2000.

Includes the dialogues Apology, the Euthyphro, the Crito, and the death scene from the Phaedo. As the title to this collection indicates, all four of these works deal with the trial and death of Socrates. They seem to be a good introduction to the Socratic method.

Rutledge, Fleming. The Battle for Middle-earth: Tolkien’s Divine Design in The Lord of the Rings. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 2004.

Rutledge maintains that beneath the storylines of The Hobbit and The Lord of the Rings Tolkien communicated a spiritual message. Rutledge’s thesis is most convincing when she demonstrates that ways in which Tolkien’s basic worldview shaped the story. For instance, she rightly highlights the theme of providence that runs throughout these works. She is less convincing when she tries her hand at allegory. Did Tolkien really intend the rangers of Ithilien to represent the base communities of South American liberation theology? (And why did all political applications of Tolkien’s work hew to the left?) Overall Rutledge is often insightful though frequently misguided.

Van Asselt, Willem J., ed. Introduction to Reformed Scholasticism. Translated by Albert Gootjes. Grand Rapids: Reformation Heritage Books, 2011.

This book would certainly interest any student of church history interested in theology in the post-Reformation era. However, the book has relevance also to those with little interest in either Reformed theology or post-Reformation scholasticism. Neo-orthodox theologians often caricatured Reformed Scholastics as being dry, rationalistic, rigid, and propositional as opposed to being warm, exegetical, and personal. Since the scholastics, both Lutheran and Reformed, refined and established the orthodox doctrines of inspiration and inerrancy (received by Fundamentalists via Old Princeton), neo-orthodox theologians often used their caricature to attack the doctrine of inerrancy. Though inerrancy is not the focus of this volume, Van Asselt and the other contributors to this book do an admirable job of setting the Reformed Scholastics in their historical context and in demonstrating the neo-orthodox caricature to be false.

Ward, Michael. Planet Narnia: The Seven Heavens in the Imagination of C. S. Lewis. New York: Oxford University Press, 2008.

C. S. Lewis’s Narnia Chronicles have often been criticized for not being as carefully crafted or coherent as Tolkien’s fantastic creations. Critics have wondered why the Narnians have a Christmas or why Bacchus appears at the liberation of Narnia from Miraz. Ward argues that Lewis did have a coherent vision for these books: each book is intended to evoke one of the seven medieval planets. For instance, The Lion, the Witch, and the Wardrobe was meant to evoke the spirit of Jupiter, Prince Caspian that of Mars, and so on. Ward demonstrates the plausibility of this thesis by demonstrating the importance of the medieval view of the heavens to Lewis in his scholarly writings, his poetry, and his other fiction (especially the Space Trilogy). Ward is able to demonstrate from these writings that Lewis had definite ideas about what each of the planets was intended to represent or evoke. He then seeks to connect each of the Chronicles with one of these planets. Ward is at his most convincing when he can show that his thesis can explain the presence of incongruous material in the Chronicles. The major obstacle to Ward’s thesis (which he does address) is the lack of any documentary evidence that Lewis really intended what Ward says he did. One other caution (made, I believe, by Alan Jacobs) is that Ward’s thesis should be seen as illuminating one aspect of the Chronicles rather than the key that unlocks the whole.

Howe, Daniel Walker. What Hath God Wrought: The Transformation of America, 1815-1848. The Oxford History of the United States. Edited by David M. Kennedy. New York: Oxford University Press, 2007.

Howe’s book is another excellent entry in the Oxford History of the United States series. Howe does not quite measure up to the works of Wood and McPherson, which flank it, but it is nonetheless and excellent work. Positively, he gives religion significant coverage in his history, but, negatively, his summaries of American religion were not always accurate. More difficult to evaluate is Howe’s evident bias for John Quincy Adams (the book is dedicated to him) and against Andrew Jackson. Howe, I believe, is correct in his moral evaluations of these two men (as well as in his negative evaluation of Polk). Furthermore, I believe moral evaluation is appropriate in historical works. Nonetheless, I felt the need to turn to Remini and Wilentz to get a better understanding of the "other side," as it were. I’m glad I bought Howe, and I’m glad a library was available in which I could refer to the other two works.

Habel, Norman C. The Land is Mine: Six Biblical Land Ideologies. Minneapolis: Fortress, 1995.

Carson’s critique of Niebuhr’s Christ and Culture could easily be adapted to Habel. Habel finds competing land ideologies in different parts of Scripture. As Carson notes with regard to Niebuhr, this prompts "questions about whether they are alternatives or components of a bigger pattern—a pattern that begins to emerge when we follow the Bible’s story line in the categories of biblical theology." It can also raise questions about how accurately Habel is reading the text in some instances. I found the book to have some helpful insights on particular passages here and there, but overall Habel’s conception of the nature of Scripture distorts his approach to Scripture.

Payton, James R., Jr. Irenaeus on the Christian Faith: A Condensation of Against Heresies. Eugene, OR: Pickwick, 2011 [Introduction, Books 4 and 5 of Against Heresies, with some supplementation from ANF]

Payton realized that much of the helpful theological material in Against Heresies remains inaccessibly buried to most Christians. The recitation of Gnostic beliefs in the first several books of Against Heresies discourage readers from pushing forward to theologically rich passages. Furthermore, until recently Against Heresies was only available in an older 19th century translation (the more recent translation in the ACW series remains incomplete).

Payton seeks to remedy these defects by updating the language and style of the older translation and by excising Irenaeus’s detailed discussions of Gnosticism and leaving behind his theologically rich teaching.

In books 4 and 5 Irenaeus covers such matters as the law and the Christian, the relation of Israel and the church, the relation of the two testaments, the incarnation, the nature of man, the resurrection, election and free will, eternal punishment, and the restoration of creation.

Irenaeus of Lyons. Proof Of The Apostolic Preaching. Ancient Christian Writers. Edited and translated by Joseph P. Smith. New York: Paulist, 1952.

In this work Irenaeus first traces out the storyline of Scripture under the headings of Creation, Fall, and Redemption. He then examines Old Testament prophecies of the Messiah and the transformation brought about the New Covenant. This is a very enjoyable read. Though not a biblical theology in the modern sense it has some affinities with the kind of biblical theology that traces out the storyline of Scripture.

Holmes, Michael W. The Apostolic Fathers: Greek Texts and English Translations. 3rd ed. Grand Rapids: Baker, 2007.

The Apostolic Fathers preserve the writings of those who followed the apostles. The most edifying of these books are First Clement and the Letter to Diognetus. The least edifying are probably The Epistle of Barnabas and The Shepherd of Hermas. Works like the letters of Ignatius fall in between. I’ve never found these letters particularly engaging. However, in this last time through them it occurred to me that the thesis that these letters represent the emergence of an episcopalian form of government may be incorrect. It seems to me that it is just as reasonable to understand Ignatius to be describing a form of government in which one overseer exists as primus inter pares with the other elders of an assembly. If so, then Ignatius may reflect continuity with the New Testament rather than a departure from it.

Guthrie, George H. The Structure of Hebrews: A Text-Linguistic Analysis. Grand Rapids: Baker, 1994.

This book provides a very helpful introduction to text-linguistics / discourse analysis combined with an proposal about the structure of Hebrews that is overall quite convincing. In brief, Guthrie posits and interweaving of expositional and exhortational sections in Hebrews. These various sections are demarked and linked with variety of devices (e.g., inclusio, hook words). The expositional sections follow this line of reasoning: "The Son Superior to the Angels (1:5-14) → The Son Became Lower than the Angels (i.e., Among Men) to Deliver Men from Sin (2:10-18) → The Son, on the Basis of His Identification with Men, is Taken from Among Men and Appointed as High Priest (5:1-7:28) → Because of His Appointment, He is Able to Offer a Superior Offering in Heaven (8:3-10:18)" (Based on Fig. 30, Guthrie, Structure of Hebrews, 127; text taken from figure verbatim; structure of figure not preserved). Central to the exhortational sections are the five passages in Hebrews that warn against apostasy from God’s Word.

The other exhortational sections come in four groups: 3:1-4:11, faithfulness; 5:11-6:3 and 6:9-12, reason for warning, reason for hope; 10:32-12:24, endurance; ch. 13 concluding exhortations. The exhortational sections are all linked closely with the warnings. 3:1-4:11 has warning passages on either side of it. The same is true of the third group, 10:32-12:24. The second group has a warning passage in its midst. The fourth group follows a warning passage. When put together, it becomes clear that the exposition focuses on the Son: his superiority, his humiliation, his priestly office, and his priestly work. The exhortations focus on warnings against turning away for the word or message that God has entrusted to them and on admonitions toward faithfulness and endurance in their faith. The teaching about the Son provides the doctrinal foundation for the exhortations.

Liederbach, Mark and Seth Bible. True North: Christ, the Gospel, and Creation Care. Nashville: B&H, 2012.

The authors decided to write this book after attending two conferences on evangelicals and the environment. They noticed the absence of Scripture in the presentations. When present the Scripture was used in a superficial way. This book is not designed to address the scientific aspects to the debate. Rather it is intended to lay a biblical and ethical foundation. The authors’ overall argument is sound, but some of their exegesis is left wanting (e.g., finding the Trinity in the plural Elohim; their interpretation of Gen. 2:15).

Articles

Locke, John. "A Letter Concerning Toleration." In Locke, Berkeley, Hume. Great Books of the Western World. Edited by Robert Maynard Hutchins. Chicago: Encylcopaedia Britannica, 1952.

Locke argues that a commonwealth should be concerned about securing the "civil interests" of a society and not religious interests. Lock says that magistrates do not have power in the area of religion because (1) God did not grant them this authority, (2) true religion is a matter of heart persuasion while a magistrate can only use force, and (3) laws cannot save souls. On the other hand he takes the church to be a "voluntary society" that gathers for "the public worshipping of God." As a voluntary society the church may only regulate the lives of those who join with it. Furthermore, he limits the interests of the to "the salvation of souls" and says "it in no way concerns the commonwealth." The church many excommunicate, but it cannot exact civil penalties, or deprive a person of his rights or property. The magistrate likewise cannot interfere with the rights of worship except as they would touch on his normal sphere of influence (e.g., he may prohibit child sacrifice because this is something the state would allow no private person to practice). But the magistrate is not responsible to punish every sin but only the sins that affect the commonwealth. His only goal is the prosperity of the commonwealth. Locke raises the question of the magistrate legislating something contrary to a person’s conscience. Locke says that this will rarely happen, but if it does the person should submit to the law or its consequences. Locke, however, does not extend toleration to the atheist, for he holds that atheism undermines all civil society.

Locke gets many things right in this letter, but he wrongly restricts the interests of the church to the salvation of souls alone. The church is also concerned about the discipleship of people in every area of life. This means that that conflicts between conscience and law are more frequent than Locke anticipated (especially as societies become more pluralistic and different moral codes strive to influence the laws).

Douglas J. Moo, “Nature in the New Creation: New Testament Eschatology and the Environment.” Journal of the Evangelical Theological Society 49, no. 3 (September 2006): 477-81.

Moo notes in the article’s introduction that Christians are often (wrongly) accused of a theology that undermines responsible environmental action. He concedes, however, that little has been done to develop a NT theology of nature (more has been done in the OT). Moo begins with Romans 8:19-22, which he understands to affirm that the natural world will be redeemed, as Isaiah predicted it would be, when God’s people are glorified. Moo concedes that Paul’s affirmation of the natural world’s redemption seems in tension with Revelation 21 and 2 Peter 3, which seem to describe the anihilation of the world. But Moo counters this reading. Language of heaven and earth fleeing or passing away need not describe the passing of the physical world. Likewise λυω words need not indicate annihilation (evangelical scholars rightly resist this conclusion when applied to humans and eternal punishment). Though Moo does not deny a fiery judgment at the end, he notes this does not mean the earth is annihilated. Here the Flood serves as a parallel. Positively, God states in Revelation 21:5, "I am making everything new." Moo notes that this favors restoration over replacement. He concludes that the resurrection body is the best analogue. Moo next turns to Colossians 1:20. He critiques the sloppy application of this verse to environmental concerns. He concludes that the verse is predicting the bringing about of universal shalom. This is "secured in principle" by Christ’s crucigixion, but it is not yet established. Moo concedes that the natural world is not at the forefront of Paul’s teaching in this passage, but he does believe it is included. Moo next turns to Gal. 6:15 and 2 Cor. 5:17. Though, again, these passages focus on human transformation, Moo believes that this is part of a broader renewal of all creation (indicated by the terminology of "new creation" as opposed to "new creature" and by the influence of language from Isa. 43:18-21 on 2 Cor. 5:17. Finally, Moo turns to the themes of Dominion, stewardship, and the image of God. Moo concludes that the dominion mandate makes human management of the creation inevitable. Moo holds that stewardship is a good description of the kind of dominion exercised. The image of God in man is understood by Moo as relational, and he includes man’s relation with creation to be part of that image. The fallen image is restored as right relationships are restored.

Moo draws the following conclusions from his survey of these key New Testament texts. First, the natural world is not at the forefront of New Testament teaching, but it is connected to important aspects of God’s redemptive work. Second, Moo rejects the idea that a futurist eschatology undermines Christian environmental stewardship. Third, holding to a renewal of the earth (rather than its annihilation and replacement) does elevate the importance of the creation. Moo concludes that Christians should be committed to a restoration of creation, while also recognizing that "ultimate success" will come only with Christ’s return. Fourth, love for God and other humans should motivate Christian environmental concerns. Fifth, Christians need wisdom in environmental matters. The dominion mandate means that Christians cannot be hostile toward technology and yet must also manage the earth’s resources well. Wisdom is needed to know when "intervention" or "conservation" is the best way to steward creation. Finally, Moo notes that inasmuch as materialism and hedonism contribute to environmental harm, that Christians should be at the forefront of those who model a new way of living.

Von Rad, Gerhard. "The Promised Land and Yahweh’s Land in the Hexateuch." In The Problem of the Hexateuch and Other Essays. Translated by E. W. Trueman Dicken. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1966.

Sadly, von Rad spends his time chasing phantasmal sources and relating the land theme to these sources. As a result he says very little of theological value in this essay.

Books

Falls, Thomas B., ed. and trans. Writings of Saint Justin Martyr. The Fathers of the Church. Edited by Hermigild Dressler. Washington, DC: Catholic University of America Press, 1948.

Justin begins his first apology with the argument that Christians should not be judged simply for bearing the name Christian. If they are to be judged, it should be for real wrongdoing. He then makes the argument that Christians are actually good citizens. In the remainder of the discourse Justin demonstrates how Christ fulfilled OT prophecies. He also deals with similarities between Christianity and pagan philosophy and myths. He claims that pagan myths were inspired by demons who knew of the prophesies of Christ. The second apology is a brief petition on behalf of a Christian who has just been sentenced to death.

The Dialogue with Trypho is a lengthy, styled dialogue between Justin and a Jew named Trypho (though Trypho speaks little). Much of the dialogue is taken up with application of OT prophecy to Christ. Justin’s conclusions are often sound, but his exegesis and reasoning is often flawed. For instance, he rightly concludes that the non-moral aspects of the Mosaic law are not binding on Gentiles, but he reasons that this is because the Mosaic law was given to Israel because of its persistent sin and is therefore a bad law given as a punishment (Eze. 20:25-26; but see Block, NICOT 1:636-41; Alexander, EBC, 836).

Irenaeus of Lyon. Against the Heresies: Book 1. Translated and Edited by Dominic J. Unger and John J. Dillon. New York: Newman Press, 1992.

The first book of Against the Heresies is largely an account of the heresies that the church faced in the time of Irenaeus. These are complicated and sometimes incomprehensible. a benefit of wading through them, however, is the recognition that completely implausible false teaching can seem quite persuasive in a given time and place while, in truth, being entirely empty. This is worth remembering when contemporary heresies seem formidable.

In terms of positive contributions to Christian theology, chapters 8-10 are the most significant. In general, Irenaeus is arguing that the Gnostics wrest Scripture from its context. He uses engaging illustrations to expose what the heretics do with Scripture: a mosaic of a king which is rearranged into the image of a fox; lines taken from throughout Homer and rearranged into a new poem. Interestingly, Irenaeus’s conclusion is not that one should investigate the contexts of the phrases the Gnostics wrest to their own ends, but rather that the rule of truth should be used as a template for performing the restoration. He states this rule of truth in 1.10.1 and 1.22.1. In support of the rule, Irenaeus argues that it is the truth confessed by the church in all parts of the world.

Irenaeus’s argument makes sense in its time. Why wrangle over the exegesis of texts with the heretics if one has the slam dunk argument that the church is unified in its teaching against the heretics (cf. Tertullian, The Prescription against Heretics, ch. 19). This approach would, however, bear bad fruit as church tradition began to diverge from apostolic teaching.

Irenaeus of Lyon. Against the Heresies: Book 2. Translated and Edited by Dominic J. Unger and John J. Dillon. New York: Newman Press, 2012.

Book one describes the heresies faced by the church in the time of Irenaeus. Book two begins a response to these heresies. In much of this book Irenaeus is simply pointing out contradictions and absurdities in the heretical doctrines, but there are several places in which he engages the heretics theologically and thus offers some positive statement regarding Christian doctrine:

• Monotheism: 2.16.3
• God the Creator and his creation: 2.1.1; 2.2.4-5; 2.3.2, 5-4; 2.11.1; 2.28.1
• Attributes of God:
  • Omnipotence, invisibility, sovereignty: 2.6.1-2
  • Divine simplicity and impassibility: 2.13.3
  • Divine transcendence: 2.13.4
• Natural revelation: 2.9.1
• Eternal generation of the Son: 2.28.6
• Recapitulation (Jesus passed through every stage of life): 2.22.4, 5
• Christ truly suffered: 2.20.3
• Offer of salvation: 2.22.2
• Infant baptism? (some think this is implied in a statement that refers to infants being born again): 2.22.4
• Ethics (Irenaeus deals with the heretics’ justification their sin): 2.32
• Against the transmigration of souls 2.33
• On the soul and the intermediate state 2.34
• Resurrection 2.29.2
• Eternal punishment 2.28.7
• Right interpretation of Scripture (warnings against basing doctrine on parables contrary to clear teachings of Scripture): 2.27
• Example of an erroneous tradition (Irenaeus claims that the Gospels (cf. John 8:56-57; AH 2.22.6), and the elders in Asia (who passed on a tradition from the apostle John, and others teach that Jesus lived to his fortieth year before dying): 2.22.5
• Mystery in theology: 2.25.3-4; 2.28
• Love in theology (Love of God is more important than knowledge, for love builds up and knowledge puffs up. Irenaeus clarifies that this is not a polemic against true knowledge, for Paul is an example of one with true knowledge; Irenaeus opposes speculative knowledge that does not tend to increase love toward God or others): 2.26

Irenaeus of Lyon. Against the Heresies: Book 3. Translated and Edited by Dominic J. Unger and Irenaeus M. C. Steenberg. New York: Newman Press, 2012.

Book 3 of Against the Heresies is much more focused on positively stating Christian doctrine. Most of book 3 deals with Scripture proofs that counteract the heretics. But before engaging in the heretics on with Scripture itself Irenaeus makes the case that the Gospels contain accurate tradition from the apostles and that the oral tradition preserved in the orthodox church faithfully preserved apostolic teaching. This leads to an interesting discussion about the composition of the Gospels (including order of composition: Matthew, Luke, Mark) in chapter 1 and about the succession of the bishops of Rome in chapter 2. Irenaeus’s discussion of Scripture and tradition set the church down a trajectory that would need to be corrected by the Reformation. Two things should be noted in Irenaeus’s defense. First, his argument made good sense in its time—in general the church did preserve a more accurate tradition of apostolic teaching than the heretics (though this tradition was not always accurate, see 2.22.5-6). Second, Irenaeus locates apostolic tradition, in the first place, in the written Gospels, and he bases his arguments on Scripture.

The main thrust of book 3 is that there is only one God and that Jesus is the same God as the Father. Noteworthy passages in book 3 are the discussion of the various OT covenants (3.11.8) and the discussion of the virgin birth prophecy of Isa 7 (3.12). A discussion of Irenaeus’s distinctive doctrine of recapitulation takes place in 3.23.

Note especially Irenaues’s comments about the manifest authority of the four Gospels: "Now, the authority of these Gospels is so great that the heretics themselves bear witness to them, and each one of them tries to establish his doctrine with the Gospels as a starting point. The Ebionites use only the Gospel of Matthew. . . . Marcion, on the other hand, mutilated the gospel according to Luke. . . . Those, however, who prefer the Gospel of Mark and divide Jesus from Christ, and assert that Christ remained impassible but that Jesus suffered, can be corrected if they read this Gospel with a love for the truth. Finally, the followers of Valentinus, who make very ample use of the Gospel according to John . . ." 3.11.7

Hart, Jeffrey. The Making of the American Conservative Mind: National Review and Its Times. Wilmington, Del.: ISI Books, 2005.

Hart provides an interesting view of post-WWII conservatism in the United States. Perhaps most interesting are his discussions of the various strands of conservatism and their varying visions of life. Hart himself opposes all forms of utopianism. He believes that the nation-state, though imperfect, is a necessary good. Along with this he believes that national defense is also necessary; it is utopian to think otherwise. But he also thinks it is utopian to think the United States can use its military power to bring democracy to the world. He prefers constitutional government to majority rule; Hart is not overly sympathetic to populism. He favors free-market economies—but not when they become a utopian ideal that overrules all other values. Hart believes that the conservative should value beauty and should seek to conserve good literature, art, architecture, and nature. Hart favors traditional religion (he is himself a Catholic, but not one who accepts the infallibility of the magisterium); he denies that evangelical religion is conservative, and he prefers a libertarian stance on moral issues. Thus while he grants that Roe v. Wade "was certainly an example of judicial overreach," he also avers that "simply to pull an abstract ‘right to life’ out of the Declaration of Independence, as some conservatives do, is not conservative but Jacobinical." He sees little value in seeking to overturn Roe v. Wade.

The value in Hart’s book is the unfolding of twentieth century (and now twenty-first century) conservatism by tracing the various competing strands of conservatism, and the debates among these strands, at National Review. For the Christian it is worth considering that some of these strands are more and less compatible with Scripture.

Articles

McClain, Alva J. "The Greatness of the Kingdom Part I," BibSac 112, no. 445 (Jan 1955): 11-27.

McClain, Alva J. "The Greatness of the Kingdom Part II: Mediatorial Kingdom in Old Testament Prophecy," BibSac 112, no. 446 (Apr 1955): 107-124.

McClain, Alva J. "The Greatness of the Kingdom Part III," BibSac 112, no. 447 (Jul 1955): 209-224.

McClain, Alva J. "The Greatness of the Kingdom Part IV: The Mediatorial Kingdom from the Acts Period to the Eternal State." BibSac 112, no. 448 (Oct 1955): 304-10.

Summary

McClain defines the kingdom of God as "the rule of God over his creation" (13). OT kingdom teaching reveals a number of paradoxes related to the kingdom: it "always existed," but it has "a definite historical beginning. It encompasses all creation, but it can be located at specific times and places on earth; God rules "directly," and God rules "through a mediator;" the kingdom exists because of the "sovereign nature of Deity," and the kingdom is grounded on the Davidic covenant (13). McClain distinguishes the two aspects of the kingdom represented by these contrasting statements as universal and mediatorial. The focus of McClain’s discussion in these articles is the mediatorial kingdom.

In McClain’s view the mediatorial kingdom is focused on the redemption of the human race, and eventually the cosmos. The "mediatorial ruler is always a member of the human race" (18).

Though the mediatorial kingdom had antecedents in the patriarchal families, McClain places the establishment of the mediatorial kingdom at Sinai. This kingdom eventually fails because the hearts of the people were not transformed by the law and because the rulers did not have the perfection needed. Thus the prophets look forward to "an age when the laws of the kingdom will be written in the hearts of its citizens (Jer. 31:33), and its mediatorial Ruler will be perfect in his character, wisdom and ways (Isa. 11:1-4)" (27).

According to McClain, the Old Testament prophets predict "a revival and restoration of the Old Testament kingdom of history" (cf. Mic 4:1, 7-8; Amos 9:11) (114). The re-establishment of the kingdom will be "sudden" and "immediate," its ruler will be both God and man, and his rule will be a monarchy that will bring about justice (115-18). The kingdom’s extent will be world-wide and it will spiritual, ethical, social, economic, political, ecclesiastical, and physical (both in terms of personal health and in terms of the earth’s fecundity) effects (118-23).

McClain finds this same far-reaching kingdom with these far reaching effects declared as at hand by John and Jesus. The kingdom is at hand because the king is presents, but the kingdom is still "contingent." When the kingdom is rejected, Jesus outlines in parables " the future of the kingdom in the peculiar form (hitherto unrevealed) which it will assume during the temporary period of Israel’s rejection" (217). Also, only after the rejection of the kingdom does Christ begin to teach about the church. Jesus then proceeds to Jerusalem, offers himself as the king, and is rejected.

After the resurrection, Jesus spends forty days teaching the apostles about the kingdom. According to McClain, the kingdom is still being offered in the book of Acts, though the church is also taking root. As rejection to the kingdom continues, and as the church grows, the offer of the kingdom passes. McClain says this is why the signs and wonders tied to the offer of the kingdom have now passed away.

At present the kingdom is found on earth only in the sense that "God is engaged in selecting and preparing a people who are to be the spiritual nucleus of the established kingdom" (307). Christians are part of the kingdom, but the kingdom is not yet established. McClain rejects the idea that there is currently a "spiritual kingdom" and that in the future there will be a "visible kingdom" (308).

In McClain’s understanding, the mediatorial kingdom in all its aspects finds fulfillment in the millennium. Once the last enemy, death, is subdued "the purpose of [the] mediatorial kingdom will have been fulfilled" (310). Jesus will still reign, but he will reign no longer as the mediatorial king but as the divine Son with the other Persons of the Trinity.

Evaluation

McClain carefully constructed a plausible theology of the kingdom that takes into account the variety of biblical data about the kingdom. And yet, his proposition raises many questions.

Are the universal kingdom and the mediatorial kingdom really to aspects of the same kingdom? While mediatorial rulers gain the right to rule from God, the universal ruler, the "paradoxical truths outlined by McClain seem to point to two distinct, but related reigns. (This may be picky since McClain is fairly nuanced here.)

Is the mediatorial kingdom’s primary purpose redemptive? Working back from Hebrews 2:5-9 through Psalm 8 to Genesis 1:26-28, one is led to the conclusion that the messianic rule of Jesus is a fulfillment of the Creation Blessing. If this is so, then it seems that the mediatorial kingdom’s function is not limited to redemption (though the prophets make clear that in a fallen world, it includes redemptive purposes). If this is the case this kingdom need not end with the millennium.

Did the kingdom prophesied in the OT and proclaimed as at hand by John and Jesus exist in the Old Testament? While it is true that the Messianic reign has roots in the Davidic covenant, I hesitate to say that this kingdom existed in the Old Testament era. McClain does an excellent job in his section on the prophets detailing the full extent of the kingdom and its effects. These effects are no more than foreshadowed in the Old Testament.

Was the kingdom offered, rejected and postponed in Jesus’s ministry and in the early church? McClain’s affirmative answer here makes sense of the fact that the kingdom prophecies of the OT are not being fulfilled in their entirety at present. But there is another way of making sense of this fact: the kingdom was inaugurated at the first advent but its final consummation is delayed until the second advent. This option makes better sense of the affirmations regarding the fulfillment of kingdom promises that occur throughout Acts.

Thus instead of seeing, with McClain, a mediatorial kingdom in existence from the time of Moses until the exile, a kingdom which will remain in abeyance until the Second Coming, I would see no mediatorial kingdom in the Old Testament, the announcement of the kingdom’s nearness by John and a presence of the kingdom in the person of Christ. The kingdom is inaugurated in the death, resurrection, and ascension of Christ, but it will not be finally consummated until Christ returns.

Despite these differences, I still find McClain’s work helpful in a number of areas. He does helpfully distinguish the universal and mediatorial kingdom passages; his second article helpfully deals with some of O. T. Allis’s objections to premillennialism; his treatment of the "extensive nature of the kingdom" is masterful as is relation of each of the elements of OT kingdom prophecy with Jesus’s kingdom teaching; and his discussion of John 18:36 is also well done.

Millar, J. Gary. “Land.” New Dictionary of Biblical Theology. Downers Grove: InterVarsity, 2000. pp. 623-27.

God promised to give land to Abraham and his seed (Gen. 12:1-3; 13:14-16; 15:18-21; 17:8; 26:3, 4, 24; 28:3-4, 13-15; 35:9-12). God has the right to give the land to Israel because he owns the whole earth. Thus the land given to Israel is God’s land (Lev. 25:23; Deut. 32:43; Josh 22:19; Is. 14:2, 25; Jer. 2:7; Ezek. 36:5; 38:16; Joel 1:6; 32). God has entrusted the land it Israel in his grace to them (Deut. 1:20-21, 25, 35; 3:18, 20; 4:1, 40; 6:1, 10, 18; 7:1, 8, 12; 8:1, 18; 9:5; 10:11; 11:9, 21; 12:1; 19:8; 26:3, 15;27:3; 30:20; 31:7, 21, 23; 34:4). The description of the land as abundantly fruitful (an land "flowing with milk and honey") "guarantees the restoration of intimacy with God in terms which recall the description of Eden" (623).

Obedience to God’s law is a significant feature of the OT’s teaching about the land. "The land is the place where Israel has the opportunity to obey God’s commands" (Deut. 12:1; cf. 6:1; 26:1; 27:1-3) (624). The land could only be gained and retained if Israel is obedient (Lev. 26:32-39; Num 13-14; Deut 4, 27-30). Land for Israel represented its relationship with God. Land in Israel was inherited by the son, and occupation of the land indicated that Israel was God’s son.

The NT does not develop a theology of land to the extent that the OT does. In Millar’s view the relational idea of Christians receiving an inheritance from God is the primary use of this theme (see Matt. 5:5; 25:34; John 15; Col. 1:13-14; 1 Pet. 1:3-5; Heb. 4:1-11).

McKeown, J. "Land, Fertility, Famine." Dictionary of the Old Testament: Pentateuch. Edited by T. Desmond Alexander and David W. Baker. Downers Grove: InterVarsity, 2003. pp. 487-91

McKeown defines the semantic ranges of land words in the OT, highlights God’s sovereignty over land, its distribution, the expulsion of sinners. He notes the responsibilities given to mankind regarding the land in Genesis 1 and the fact that punishments for sin in Genesis 1-11 all relate to land. The land promises to Abraham are recounted. The gracious gift of the land along with the requirement for Israel’s obedience is noted. The significance of the Promised Land as a new Eden is noted, but with the caveat that problems caused sin must be regulated.

Williamson, P. R. "Land." In Dictionary of the Old Testament: Historical Books. Edited by Bill T. Arnold and H. G. M. Williamson. Downers Grove: InterVarsity, 2005. pp. 638-43.

Williamson notes that in the historical books, Israel’s history is told with primary reference to the land: how it is obtained, trespassed, secured, expanded, lost, and restored. Williamson also notes the theme of the land as Israel’s inheritance, the requirement of Israel’s obedience, and judgment in the form of invasion, famine, and exile. In the end, the historical books end "on a note of hope rather than one of fulfillment" (642).

Allison, Jr. D. C. "Land in Early Christianity." In Dictionary of the Later New Testament and Its Developments. Edited by Ralph P. Martin and Peter H. Davids. Downers Grove: InterVarsity, 1997. pp. 642-44.

Allison recognizes that the Old Testament and Second Temple literature taught that God would regather Israel to a new land. However, since the land texts in the NT do not specifically mention a renewed Israel, but instead point more generally to a renewed earth or a worldwide millennial reign, Allison concludes the land has become "a symbol of some transhistorical reality" (643)) In fact, "holy space is where Jesus Christ is (Ign. Smyrn. 8.2); and because as risen Lord he is free to move where he will, there can be no sacred as opposed to profane territory, no genuine ‘holy land.’ Christ’s ubiquity as a spiritual presence universalizes the notion of holy space and so inescapably relativizes the sanctity and significance of the land promised to Abraham’s descendants" (644). This seems to be a far-ranging conclusion based on pretty weak argumentation. Would it not be more reasonable to assume the Old Testament background in instances when the land theme arises, rather than assuming that it is rejected? This would especially be so in cases such as Luke 13:29; Matthew 19:28 ; and Revelation 20 in which there are clear OT parallels. Furthermore, a "literal messianic kingdom centered in Israel" is not mutually exclusive of "a new or renewed earth" (644). John Goldingay’s approach is sounder: "The New Testament’s silence on the theme of Israel may thus imply that this theme should be taken for granted, not that it should be rejected. . . . The New Testament makes explicit that in Christ the temple and the sacrificial system lose their literal significance. If it had meant to suggest that this happens with the promise of the land, it would have had to make this explicit, too. But while it once or twice applies the rest/inheritance motif to Jesus, it never directly suggests that the First Testament promise regarding the land is fulfilled in him. We might infer that this promise is one to which God says yes in Jesus not in the sense that his coming fulfills it but in the sense that his coming confirms it, guarantees that like all other promises it will be fulfilled. It could naturally follow that the positive purpose of God lies behind the Jews regaining a home for themselves in Palestine. God’s commitment to Israel had to find expression in seeing it has a home; otherwise it is not a commitment at all. The New Testament’s concern with the being of the Jewish people cannot but imply a concern with the land of Israel." John Goldingay, "What Is Israel’s Place in God’s Purpose?" in Key Questions about Christian Faith: Old Testament Answers (Grand Rapids: Baker, 2010), 200.

Janzen, W. "Land." The Anchor Bible Dictionary 4:143-154

In the Old Testament theology section Janzen’s most helpful comments are his summaries of the prophetic literature on the land (his treatment of the Pentateuch and Historical Books mirrors the content of other works). In the New Testament theology section, he sees affirmations of the OT land theology, abrogation of it (especially in Hebrews), symbolic use of it, and extension of it to the nations. Janzen’s analysis of the New Testament data is problematized by his failure to recognize a coherent theology within that Testament, much less a coherence between the testaments. Nonetheless, the article does gather a good amount of data together.

Allen, Ronald B. "The Land of Israel." In Israel: Land and the People. Edited by H. Wayne House. Grand Rapids: Kregel, 1998.

Allen argues the following in this essay: through the whole earth is the Lord’s, he has selected the land of Israel as his special possession, a place where he has chosen to accomplish the most significant acts in his work of Redemption. He has promised in covenant that this land is the possession of the nation/people of Israel. This is an unconditional promise ultimately, but there are conditions for particular generations enjoying it. Presently Israel does not meet those conditions, and thus cannot claim the land as a divine gift. It does have a legal right to the land according to international actions of the UN. The Christian should see God’s providential working in preserving the Jews and in opening a homeland for them even though the spiritual transformation of the people and the fullness of the promises to them are not yet accomplished.

Kaiser, Jr., Walter C. "The Land of Israel and the Future Return (Zechariah 10:6-12)." In Israel: Land and the People. Edited by H. Wayne House. Grand Rapids: Kregel, 1998.

Kaiser argues that Zechariah 10:6-12 confirms that the return to the land prophesied by Jeremiah and Ezekiel was not fulfilled in the returns documented in Ezra and Nehemiah. He also addresses arguments to the effect that the land promise was conditional (and thus has no future fulfillment), was given to Israel for a long period of time but not in perpetuity (and thus the promise has lapsed), or was abrogated or redirected by the NT.

Jelinek, John A. "The Dispersion and Restoration of Israel to the Land." In Israel: Land and the People. Edited by H. Wayne House. Grand Rapids: Kregel, 1998.

Jelinek investigates Leviticus 24 and Deuteronomy 28-30 as a basis for the Bible’s teaching about Israel’s exile and restoration. He then surveys teaching on these themes throughout the remainder of the Old and New Testaments. He concludes that the land promise to Israel was unconditional, that the covenant did stipulate exile for breaking the covenant, and that a restoration was promised to the nation. This restoration to the land involved a spiritual restoration with an inward circumcision of the heart that made obedience possible. The New Testament reveals that the Holy Spirit, the means of this internal circumcision, has been given. Israel as a whole remains unrepentant, however. Paul prophesies, however, the future conversion of the nation. This connects to the promises of restoration given earlier.

Muller, Richard A. “The Place and Importance of Karl Barth in the Twentieth Century: A Review Article.” Westminster Theological Journal 50, no. 1 (Spring 1988): 127-156.

After summarizing several books on Barth that emerged in the 1980s Muller evaluates Barth’s role as a theologian who mediated between liberals and conservatives. While acknowledging the draw that Barth has had on members of both groups, Muller concludes that Barth has actually constructed a new extreme rather than a mediating position. Muller concludes that Barth’s major value lies in his critiques of liberal theology and his call for conservatives the engage with issues raised in the modern world. But Muller does not find Barth’s theological position convincing: his theological exegesis often fails to truly exegete texts, his theology exists in the realm of words and concepts but distances itself from history and reality, and despite, Barth’s many discussions of the great tradition of the church, Barth "presents the tradition all too frequently only to deviate from it and, in so doing, points away from itself to treasures that are not its own."

Bolt, John. “The Greening of Spirituality : A Review Article.” Calvin Theological Journal 30, no. 1 (April 1, 1995): 194-211.

Bolt’s own conclusion summarizes his article nicely: "As this review has tried to show, the vast amount of literature on theology and ecology requires careful sorting and weighing. There is much that is interesting and valuable, there is far too much that is pagan and theologically goofy. In addition, there is also another caution that is called for, in my judgment. During the decade of the seventies, evangelical Christians became sensitive to the problem of poverty and hunger in the world. Ronald Sider’s Rich Christians in an Age of Hunger served as a manifesto of that concern. Two decades later it is fairly evident that Sider’s analysis and moderately socialist solutions to the problems of global poverty and hunger were seriously flawed. Many well-intentioned Christians enthusiastically signed on to bankrupt ideas with evangelical fervor. The irony here is that critiques of the Sider approach were available even then but not taken seriously. Facing a related but distinct problem in the global environmental crisis, the lessons of that mistake should not be lost. Specifically, Christians who are concerned as they should be about the integrity of creation and human stewardship of it, have an obligation to listen to Her Majesty’s loyal opposition in this matter. Become familiar with the divisions in the scientific community itself about the actual threats of environmental disaster. . . ."

Harmless, William. "Augustine the Bishop." In Augustine in His Own Words. Washington, DC: The Catholic University of America Press, 2010.

Harmless draws on Augustine’s own writings and on Possidius’s Vita to sketch Augustine’s ordination, episcopal duties, and retirement. The text is sometimes encouraging as it reveals Augustine’s piety and concern for doctrinal and personal purity. His wisdom in dealing with difficult situations is often on display. Yet the text is sometimes discouraging as the departure from a biblical church order along with various abuses that will grow out of that departure are clearly already developing.

But what is the motive, that enlivens the believer in the pursuit of more extended spiritual knowledge ? Is it that he may live upon the airy breath of human applause ? No, rather that he may praise his God with uprightness of heart. We always find, that as our mind is dark, our tongue is dumb, our lips are sealed, and we are unable to bear a testimony for our God. But when "he opens our understandings" to " learn his judgments," he will next " open our lips, and our mouths shall shew forth his praise."

Charles Bridges, Exposition of Psalm CXIX, as illustrative of the character and exercises of Christian experience, 15.

Books

Tolkien, J. R. R. Unfinished Tales of Numenor and Middle-earth. Edited by Christopher Tolkien. New York: Houghton Mifflin Harcourt, 1980.

In addition to containing enjoyable tales and further information about Middle Earth, Unfinished Tales also provides a hermeneutical lesson about canonical interpretation. "The Quest of Erebor" provides background to the story of the Hobbit from Gandalf’s perspective. Just as the significance Bilbo’s discovery of the ring was altered when The Hobbit is read in light of the Lord of the Rings, so the significance of Smaug’s death and the re-establishment of the King under the mountain is changed when placed in Gandalf’s perspective of the wider war against Sauron. Something similar happens in Scripture. While passages of Scripture must be understood first in their own literary context (as Bilbo’s finding of the ring or the Battle of the Five Armies must first be understood in their role in the story of The Hobbit), they should also be read in light of the canon as a whole. In this way later passages of Scripture may enrich the meaning of earlier passages of Scripture.

Pennington, Jonathan T. Reading the Gospels Wisely: A Narrative and Theological Introduction. Grand Rapids: Baker, 2012.

Pennington provides an introduction to the Gospels from the perspective of an evangelical participant in the theological interpretation of Scripture "movement." Pennington’s work reflects both the strengths and weaknesses of a TIS approach.

Strong points in the book in include:

• Pennington’s examination of what the Gospels are (including a survey of how the word "gospel" is used in the Gospels, Gospel as a genre, the relation of Gospel to bioi, and the purposes for which the Gospels were written. Pennington settles on the following definition: "Our canonical Gospels are the theological, historical, and aretological (virtue-forming) biographical narratives that retell the story and proclaim the significance of Jesus Christ, who through the power of the Spirit is the Restorer of God’s reign" (35).
• an examination of the historical nature of the Gospels that interacts with N. T. Wright’s work on the historical Jesus. Pennington rightly refuses to pit history and theology against each other. But he faults Wright for "methodological naturalism" and for building his theology not upon the Gospel texts themselves but upon his reconstructed background. Pennington argues that the Gospels must be received as testimony. As such they are historical, but they are also theologically shaped.
• Pennington’s detailed method that moves the reader from narrative analysis through to personal and pastoral application. This may be the most useful part of the book. This section of the book will be received most beneficially if it is practiced on several Gospel texts rather than merely read. It is this section that is worth the price of the book.

Weak points include:

• pitting the epistles, especially the Pauline epistles, against the Gospels. Pennington is a conservative evangelical, so he recognizes the full inspiration and importance of both the Gospels and the epistles. But he accepts the common charge that evangelicals privilege Paul and justification and the expense of the Gospels and the kingdom. He seems to over-react by arguing the Gospels should be privileged. Just as he argues that the Epistles cannot be understood apart from the storyline provided in the Gospels, so I would argue that the Gospels cannot rightly be understood apart from the more propositional revelation in the Epistles. All parts of the canon work together.
• wrong reaction to the historical-critical method that emerged in the Enlightenment period. Like many theological interpreters Pennington argues for a return to patristic hermeneutics with an openness to spiritual sense of Scripture. But pre-critical interpretation cannot be limited to the fathers alone. The problems with their multi-sense approach to interpretation was already becoming clear by the end of the Middle Ages.* The Reformers are both pre-critical and decisively reject the allegorical method of the fathers. They provide a better hermeneutical model.** The approach of the Reformers will provide Pennington with all the richness of meaning that he desires to find. And in any event, the approach of the fathers cannot be adopted without addressing the problems that led it the abandonment of their approach.

In all Pennington’s work provides a helpful approach to reading and understanding the Gospels, but he could strengthen his approach by engaging more critically with aspects of the Theological Interpretation "movement."

* See Nicholas M. Healy, "Introduction," in Thomas G. Weinandy, Daniel A. Keating, and John P. Yocum, Aquinas on Scripture (New York: T & T Clark, 2005), 7-9; Beryl Smalley, The Study of the Bible in the Middle Ages (University of Notre Dame Press, 1964), 281-92.

** See T.H.L. Parker Calvin’s Old Testament Commentaries (Edinburgh: T&T Clark, 1986), 70, 81; idem, Calvin’s New Testament Commentaries, 2nd ed. (Louisville: WJK, 1993), 282-85.

DeYoung, Kevin. The Good News We Almost Forgot: Rediscovering the Gospel in a 16th Century Catechism. Chicago: Moody, 2010.

DeYoung provides an excellent entry-level introduction to the Heidelberg Catechism.

Peterson, David. Possessed by God: A New Testament Theology of Sanctification and Holiness. New Studies in Biblical Theology. Edited by D. A. Carson. Downers Grove: InterVarsity, 1995.

Peterson’s main point is that sanctification language in the New Testament almost always refers to what theologians term positional sanctification rather than progressive sanctification. It is this definitive work of God which grounds Christian growth in holiness and transformation into Christlikeness. Peterson wishes to rescue Christians from the debilitations of moralism and perfectionism by encouraging them to live the Christian life in light of what Christ has already accomplished for them and the goal of glorification that he will bring about for them. Peterson’s general thrust seems biblically substantiated, though I have the sense that Peterson may be a bit more rigid on hagiasmos words than is warranted (he wants to read in a positional sanctification background into hagiasmos texts in which a progressive idea is present). Peterson also seemed overly critical of the Puritan writings on sanctification without engaging them deeply. Nonetheless, the book is helpful, especially in its treatment of living between the cross and the resurrection.

Articles

Carson, D. A. "The Beauty of Biblical Balance." Themelios 37.2 (2012): 178-81.

While granting that not all aspects of life are to be balanced (e.g., love for God with all our being), Carson does highlight several areas in which Christians ought to seek balance: (1) Using time in a balanced way to faithfully carry out work, family, ministry, and other obligations; (2) balance in biblical emphases (note unity and purity are not equally balanced: doctrinal truth is nonnegotiable; unity is desirable but can become compromise); (3) feeding from all parts of the Bible, from a wide spectrum of biblical themes, with attention to the storyline of Scripture; (4) wisdom in applying the Scripture to those with differing spiritual conditions; (5) "balance in integrating complementary truths that lie on the edge of great mysteries, not least complementary truths about God."

Yarbrough, Robert W. "Bonhoeffer as Biblical Scholar," Themelios 37.2 (2012): 185-90.

An overly brief argument that attempts to make the case Bonhoeffer should provide an example to evangelical biblical scholars. The article was underdeveloped to the point of not being very helpful.

Williams, Sam. "Toward a Theology of Emotion," Southern Baptist Theological Journal 7, no. 4 (Winter 2003): 58-72.

Williams offers helpful definitions of feeling, emotion, and affection in which he distinguishes the three. Williams then defends the idea that God, because he is a person (and given explicit Scripture), is not an emotionless being. Williams concludes with an examination of human emotion under the headings of creation, fall and redemption. An excellent treatment.

Paula Fredriksen and Judith Lieu, "Christian Theology and Judaism," in The First Christian Theologians: An Introduction to Theology in the Early Church, ed. G. R. Evans (Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2004.

"To spin the straw of traditional religious narrative into the gold of philosophically coherent and elevating theology, Hellenistic intellectuals availed themselves of allegory. . . . Allegory enabled the enlightened reader to see through the surface level of a text to its spiritual message, to understand what the text truly meant in contrast to what it merely said. Grammar, rhetoric, philological finesse: all these tools of classical paideia might be brought to bear on an ancient story to turn it into a philosophically lucid statement of timeless truth." 86

Holmes, Michael W., ed. and trans. The Apostolic Fathers: Greek Texts and English Translations. 3rd ed. Grand Rapids: Baker, 2007. [Read: First Clement, The Letters of Ignatius, The Letter of Polycarp to the Philippians, The Martyrdom of Polycarp, The Epistle of Barnabas, The Epistle to Diognetus, Fragments of Papias]

First Clement and the Epistle to Diognetus remain my favorite post-apostolic writings. I don’t enjoy Ignatius as much, but it did strike me this time through that his discussion of a biship and a council of elders may reflect a situation in which one elder (the bishop) has a leadership role among the elders rather than merely indicating the rise of an episcopacy. Barnabas is interesting in that he argues that the Jews ought to have understood the Torah spiritually from the beginning. He seems to be saying that the Israelites did not need to observe the food laws or perhaps even the sacrifices. They should have simply drawn the spiritual lessons from them. It seems that the relation of the Old Testament to the believer was a real problem for the early church.

Henry, Carl F. H. God, Revelation and Authority (Volume III: God Who Speaks and Shows: Fifteen Theses, Part Two). Waco, TX: Word, 1979. [Read Thesis Eight, pp. 9-163]

Henry, like Charles Hodge, is a favorite whipping boy among recent theological theorists. While not above critique, Henry’s work contains much valuable material that should not be neglected. Henry’s defense of propositional revelation remains especially relevant and runs throughout his work. Henry is often more nuanced in his defense of propositional revelation than his critics allow for. Also of interest in this opening section of volume three are Henry’s discussion of the concept of mystery (3:9-11), his discussion of the kingdom of God and its relevance to Christian political engagement (3:69-74), his treatment of the person of Christ (3:108-117), and his defense of the Resurrection (3:147-63). Of special interest is Henry’s lengthy treatment of Jewish objections to Christianity (3:118-46) and his treatment of issues related to synoptic Gospels (3:84-91). On this latter topic Henry includes good discussions of oral tradition, Q, form and redaction criticism, the language Jesus spoke, ipsissima verba vs. ispsissima vox. In my estimation, Henry shows greater wisdom in this discussion than many other evangelical treatments.

No doubt we think we can avoid the Pharisee’s error. God was not for him, we say, because he was contemptuous toward the publican; we will be tender to the publican, as Jesus taught us to be, and then God will be for us. It is no doubt a good idea; it is we’ll that we are tender toward the publican. But what is our attitude toward the Pharisee? Alas, we despise him in a truly Pharisaical manner. We go up into the temple to pray; we stand and pray thus with ourselves: ‘God I thank thee that I am not as other men are, proud of my own righteousness, uncharitable toward publicans, or even as this—Pharisee.’

J. Gresham Machen, What is Faith? (New York: Macmillan, 1933), 80.

At this point, we must reiterate that all our primary faculties or capacities (intellect, will, conscience, and emotion) are equally involved in imaging God and equally corrupted by sin. This is important because, ‘It is sometimes argued that unless one asserts the primacy of the intellect, one may justly follow any or every sort of emotion. But this would be true only in the non-Christian concept of the nature of man. Only in the non-Christian concept of man are the emotions inherently unruly; they have become unruly only because of sin. But, when sin has entered into the mind of man, the intellect is as unruly as are the affections. The whole man refuses to subject itself to the rule of God. When a saved sinner learns to control his passions, the reason is not primarily that he has understood the meaning of the primacy of the intellect as a psychological truth, but the primary reason is that in the whole of his being he is born of God.’

Sam Williams. "Toward a Theology of Emotion," Southern Baptist Theological Journal 7, no. 4 (Winter 2003): 68 citing C. Van Til, An Introduction to Systematic Theology (Phillipsburg: Presbyterian and Reformed, 1978) 34..

Books

Bock, Darrell L. Recovering the Real Lost Gospel: Reclaiming the Gospel as Good News. Nashville, B&H, 2010. [Skimmed]

Bock’s goal in this book is to rescue the gospel from reductionism. He notes the tendency of some churches to reduce the gospel to a therapeutic that meets various personal needs and of others that makes it a transaction for getting to heaven with little more about the Christian life that follows. Bock defines the gospel as "the good news that God’s promised rule of deliverance has arrived. To experience the kingdom Jesus preached is to experience God’s presence. Jesus died so His work could clear the way for a fresh work of God’s grace (Titus 2:11-14)" (1). Bock affirms that the cross is central to the gospel, but he says it is central like the hub of a wheel with spokes that emanate from it.

Wilkins, Michael J. Following the Master: A Biblical Theology of Discipleship. Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1992.

Wilkins has provided a comprehensive theology of discipleship. He surveys Old Testament and inter-testamental background to the concept of discipleship, Jesus’s model of discipleship, the unique contribution of each of the Gospels, Acts, and the Epistles to the concept, and the way the concept developed in the post-apostolic period. Wilkins closes with practical application to Christians and churches today.

Wolters, Albert M. Creation Regained. Revised edition. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 2005.

Summary

Basic to Wolters’s argument is that all people function with a comprehensive worldview that covers every aspect of life. If a person’s worldview ought to be shaped by Scripture, then Scripture must speak to every area of life. In other words, since worldviews are comprehensive, Scripture’s authority and scope must be comprehensive as well. In the remainder of the book Wolters sketches what a comprehensive Christian worldview looks like.

He summarizes the Christian worldview under the categories of creation, fall, and redemption. In the chapter on creation, Wolters emphasizes that God created the world with laws. One may speak of laws of nature. These were put in place and are upheld by the creator God. The same is true for norms. There are certain moral norms, relational norms, or norms that practitioners of various disciplines must adhere to. Wolters brings laws and norms together under the umbrella of creational law. These norms, relevant to all aspects of life, are discerned through wisdom. In some of these areas, Scripture speaks directly. In others it provides the corrective lens by which the Christian can properly understand general revelation. At the root all creation (and the norms that govern it) is good.

Yet there is a major problem: the fall. The effects of the fall are comprehensive: no area of life is untouched. It is for this reason that Scripture uses the term world to refer to “the totality of unredeemed life dominated by sin outside of Christ” (64, citing Ridderbos). Wolters concludes from this that worldliness cannot be restricted to a secular realm of life. It is a danger in every aspect of life.

Wolters’s emphasis on the comprehensiveness of the fall may seem to stand in tension with his claim of the comprehensive goodness of creation. He introduces the categories of structure and direction to deal with this tension. Structure refers to the essence of a thing, and it is rooted in creational laws. Direction refers to the degree to which a creational entity (and given Wolters’s broad view of creation this can refer both to the natural order and to human institutions) is perverted by the fall or is being brought back to conformity to creational law.

The solution to the problem of fall is redemption. Wolters argues that "redemption means restoration" (69). Furthermore, the scope of the restoration is as wide as the scope of the fall. The man, Jesus, plays the key role in restoring creation. The establishment of his kingdom is the evidence that redemption or restoration has begun. And yet the kingdom is not yet consummated. In this already-not yet time, Christians are to attempt to live redemptively in every area of life, that is, they are to live consistent with the restoration that Christ is accomplishing in them and that he will one day fully accomplish in the world.

In his final chapter Wolters attempts a practical outworking of “discerning structure and direction” in both societal and personal arenas. Before he works through his examples, however, he makes an important distinction between “revolution” and “reformation.” According to Wolters, the Christian ought not use violence to effect a revolution in the hope of ushering in a utopia. No utopia is possible before the return of Christ. Instead the Christian seizes on what is good in a particular order and strengthens it; he seeks to bend fallen aspects of life back toward the correct creational norms.

The second edition of Creation Regained includes a postscript coauthored by Wolters and Michael Goheen. They are concerned to locate this talk of worldview in the Bible’s storyline. Because the Christian lives in the era in which the kingdom has been inaugurated but not yet consummated, this is a time of witness. It is not a time in which Christians will finally triumph. In fact, the already-not yet means that Christians presently undergo suffering and conflict because the antithesis between the kingdom of God and the kingdoms of this world is sharpened in this period. This means that the Christian must struggle with the tension of applying the gospel to his specific culture while not allowing his culture to compromise the gospel. The difficulties in living out a Christian worldview are beyond the abilities of Christians, but the Spirit of God is given to empower obedience and faithfulness.

In sum, Wolters argues that creation extends to all that God creates and maintains (it includes the natural order and structures humans develop in obedience to the creation mandate), fall affects every aspect of creation, and redemption extends as far as the fall to restore creation. This is not a triumphalist gospel in the present, for in the time between the ages there is sharp conflict between the kingdom of God and the kingdoms of this world as God’s people seek to live redemptively in this fallen world.

Evaluation

Wolters’s work includes a number of concepts that prove helpful not only in Christianity and culture discussions but also in advancing broader biblical and theological understanding.

Wolters gathers under the rubric creational law natural laws, the law revealed in Scripture, and God’s specific purposes for creation or individuals. He supports this view by highlighting Scripture passages in which these seemingly diverse concepts are brought together (2 Peter 3:5, 7; Ps. 148:8; 147:15-20; 1 Tim. 4:3-4; Rom. 13:1-2; 1 Pet. 2:13; Ps. 19:1-4; Acts 14:17; Rom. 1:18-20; Rom. 2:14-15). On the theological side, the payoff is that this approach to creational law strengthens the canonical links between the Pentateuch and wisdom books by showing that the law and the wisdom books (especially Proverbs) demonstrate the concrete application of creational norms to specific cultural situations. The other benefit of this approach is that it forces Christians to realize that various aspects of fallen culture struggle against creational law. This is obvious on matters such as homosexual “marriage” about which Scripture clearly speaks, but it may also be occurring on matters such as modern art or certain musical styles. Thus awareness of creational law can put Christians on-guard against uncritically accepting fallen aspects of culture; it alerts Christians to the need of applying Scripture with Spirit-guided wisdom to every aspect of life.

Structure and direction may be the most broadly useful of Wolters’s concepts. If all of creation is good, and if the fall has affected all of creation, how does the Christian discern what is good and what is bad. Or, if a missionary must contextualize his ministry in a new culture, how does he discern what is legitimate and what is compromise? Wolters’s discussion of structure and direction does not answer these questions, but it provides categories that make answering these questions possible. The basic structures of God’s creation are good, but these structures may be twisted in a bad direction or bent back to the good purposes that God has for them. The Christian must therefore wisely discern what is structural, what is directional, and how to live in the right direction.

Salvation as restoration is a key point of disagreement between Wolters and two-kingdoms theorists such as David VanDrunen. Wolters is in the right on this issue. Whereas, VanDrunen sees the resurrection body as the only point of contact between this world and the new earth (Living in God’s Two Kingdoms, 66), Romans 8:18-25 ties the renewal of the world and the resurrection of the body together. Genesis 8:21 and 2 Peter 3:10-12 are misunderstood if they are deployed to deny restoration. It is part of God’s glory that he reverses the effects of sin rather than throwing away creation and starting over afresh.

Those who agree with Wolters that all of creation needs to be redeemed may be tempted to overthrow the present order and seek to establish the ideal. Wolters’s distinction between reformation and revolution guards against this however. Wolters notes that Christians do not have authorization to effect a revolution. Furthermore, “no given societal order is absolutely corrupt” (92), and no ideal is attainable in this age. Thus, the Christian should do his best to strengthen what is good and undermine evil when he has opportunity. Thus Wolters combines modesty in effecting cultural change with the encouragement for Christians to attempt to improve culture as they are able in their situation.

Though Wolters advocates a role for Christians in the restoration of the world, he does not do so in a triumphalist manner or in one in which humans are at the center of bringing about the promised redemption. Instead, in this age, the Christian who presses for redemption can expect persecution and suffering. With this emphasis Wolters taps into a major biblical theme: Christians as sojourners in this present evil age. It is a strength that Wolters is able to maintain this emphasis alongside his emphasis of Christian attempts to live redemptively in the culture.

Despite its many strengths, a number of weaknesses in Wolters’s work need to be addressed.

Wolters’ extension of creation into areas of human endeavor such as marriage, farming, education, and business is intriguing. He has presented convincing biblical evidence in terms of marriage and farming (and the latter example lends itself to extension in other areas). There also seems to be historical evidence to support his hypothesis. For instance, communism seems to fail because it violates certain creational norms. The same could be said of certain educational theories or business practices. And yet what does it mean to call agriculture, economics, or science "creation"? Is it the norms that are creational? Are the actions, the structures, and/or the products creational? Some additional clarity on this point is needful.

Wolters rightly views redemption as restoration, but because of his broad definition of creation, he argues that the “products of human culture” will be purified and brought into the new creation. This goes beyond the biblical evidence and seems unnecessary even in a redemption-as-restoration paradigm. Clarification on the extent of creation will help in this matter.

Wolters is willing to speak of Christians advancing the kingdom in such areas as "advertising, labor-management relations, education, and international affairs" (76). A Christian who is in a labor union or on a management team must not dichotomize his work from his submission to Christ as Lord, but is working in such a way that the direction of these activities is bent towards their creational norms really advancing the kingdom? In some cases, perhaps. Part of his sanctification (that is, part of his redemption) is to conduct himself as befits a citizen of Christ’s kingdom in all of these areas. But while he may have a sanctifying effect on his lost co-workers in these matters (along the lines of 1 Cor. 7:14), it seems too expansive to say he is establishing God’s kingdom or that he is redeeming certain areas of culture. It would be better to say that he is acting in ways that anticipate the consummation of the kingdom or in ways that are consistent with redemption.

Wolters work would be strengthened by discussion about the role of the church. His book is most helpful for enabling Christians to live Christianly in their vocations six days a week. Yet that is not where the stress of the New Testament lies; its stress lies on the church. It is not wrong to focus elsewhere; indeed theologians have often found it necessary to emphasize things the Bible does not either to defend parts of Christianity that are under attack or to apply Scripture to situations not directly addressed by Scripture. Nonetheless, greater discussion of these areas would strengthen Wolters’s work.

In sum, Creation Regained is full of concepts that will enrich many aspects of Bible study: creational norms, structure and direction, the kingdom, worldliness, and the overlap of the ages. Wolters’ primary weakness is the speculative nature of some of his ideas. The insights he has, however, far outweigh the weaknesses. This is the kind of book that repays repeated, careful, and thoughtful reading.

Murray, Iain H. Wesley and Men Who Followed. Carlisle, PA: Banner of Truth, 2003.

In this four part work Iain Murray traces the life and ministry of John Wesley, the lives and ministries of three of his Methodist successors, two Methodist doctrines, and the general trajectory of Methodism in history to the present. The classic themes of Murray’s writing ministry are found in this book. Wesley’s life enables Murray to retell the working of God in the Methodist revivals. In telling the stories of three of Wesley’s followers Murray is able to critique the revivalist new measures that emerged in the nineteenth century. Significantly, he is able to demonstrate that Wesleyan Arminians (and not Calvinists only) criticized revivalism, while at the same time seeking true revival. While Murray does think some Calvinists have been too hard on Wesley (he names Dallimore), Murray does critique Wesley’s vacillation on the imputation of Christ’s righteousness and his teaching on Christian perfection. In the closing chapter Murray finds in Methodism’s history a warning concerning the deadening effects liberalism has within a denomination. The book is not a didactic discussion of these themes. The thematic elements arise naturally as the narrative unfolds. As with all of Murray’s work, this history is warm, devotional, and aware of the Spirit’s working in the world

Wood, Gordon S. Empire of Liberty: A History of the Early Republic, 1789-1815. The Oxford History of the United States. Edited by David M. Kennedy. New York: Oxford University Press, 2009.

Gordon Wood introduces this period of American history with the story of Rip Van Winkle to make the point that the cultural changes that occurred in the period from the end of the Revolutionary War to the end of the War of 1812 are nothing less than astounding. Wood chronicles these changes with illuminating discussions of the intellectual currents of this period, how they influenced the events of this period, and how, in turn, the events made plausible or implausible various ideas about government and society. For instance, the successful War for Independence ushered in an era of greater democracy which alarmed many of the Revolutionary leaders by its excess. Wood argues that the Constitution was designed, in part, to place a check on democratic excesses in the states. Interestingly, this insight provides the backdrop for an explanation for the enigma of James Madison’s alliance with Alexander Hamilton in promoting the Constitution and their rivalry once the new government was formed. Wood argues that Madison wanted the national government to be an umpire that checked the democratic excesses of the state whereas Hamilton wanted to see the United States become a powerful nation equal to Europe.

Wood also does an excellent job covering the religious and moral aspects of this period of American history. Indeed he begins the book with a discussion about why morality is more important for republics than for monarchies. In a monarchy, morality may be imposed from the top down, but in a republic, morality must be embraced by the people at large, lest their vices infect and destroy the nation. In his chapter on religion during this time period Wood does a good job of acknowledging genuinely orthodox figures in this period, of distinguishing the rational religion of many of the leading founders from both deism and orthodox Christianity, and of rightly representing the church and state position of these fathers as welcoming the moralizing influence of religion upon government and society while rejecting sectarian preferences. In other words, on an issue that is currently highly politicized Wood presents a careful, accurate account.

This carefulness and attention to detail is consistent throughout Empire of Liberty and, combined with an engaging writing style, makes this history a very enjoyable read.

Lewis, C. S. The Voyage of the Dawn Treader.

Bartholomew, Craig G. and Ryan P. O’Dowd. Old Testament Wisdom Literature: A Theological Introduction. Downers Grover: InterVarsity, 2011.

This book may be divided into three sections. The first three chapters locate wisdom literature in its ancient context, the last three chapters connect the wisdom literature to Christ, to biblical theology, and to the present. The central section of the book examines the books of Proverbs, Job, and Ecclesiastes. Each book receives an overview followed by a study of a specific chapter (Prov. 31, Job 28, and Ecc. 3).

The most helpful features of this book are:

• The effort to distinguish OT wisdom from ANE wisdom (while still recognizing the cultural similarities between the two). This is important because of the claims of OT wisdom itself that the fear of the Lord is the beginning of wisdom.
• Discussions about how the wisdom books relate to each other (e.g., how Proverbs functions alongside Job and Ecclesiastes) and in the broader canon.
• Illuminating chapters on the book of Proverbs and Job 28.

In terms of understanding the particular books, I found the chapter on Proverbs to be excellent. The chapter on Ecclesiastes is headed in the right direction, but I don’t think the tensions between the hebel and carpe diem passages are as great or as unresolved as Bartholomew believes them to be. The chapter on Job seemed off the mark in a number of areas (including the role of Elihu).

Overall, when Bartholomew and O’Dowd were on the mark, they were very helpful.

Articles

Goldingay, John. "What Is a Covenant?" In Key Questions about Christian Faith: Old Testament Answers. Grand Rapids: Baker, 2010.

In this article Goldingay discusses what a covenant is and surveys the various biblical covenants. Aside from his discussion of a creation covenant in connection with the Noah covenant, I did not find the article overly insightful. Regarding a creation covenant, Goldingay says, "The fact that Genesis does not use the word ‘covenant’ until after the flood is unlikely to mean nothing. It suggests there is no need for the formalizing of the relationship between God and the world as a covenant when the relationship is in an unspoiled state. Creation established a natural relationship between God and humanity. . . . Covenants establish relationships where there was no relationship before. In the case of God and humanity, the natural relationship that came about by creation came to be devastated by humanity’s being wrong-minded from youth and by God’s destroying the world. A fresh relationship therefore needs to be established" (115). This is quite a different position from that of Herman Bavinck: "Among rational and moral creatures all higher life takes the form of a covenant. Generally a covenant is an agreement between persons who voluntarily obligate and bind themselves to each other for the purpose of fending off and evil or obtaining a good." But Bavinck goes on to argue that God is so exalted above man as Creator to creature that if there is to be more than a master-slave relation, there must be a covenantal relation established. He says that the rational nature of man presupposes a covenant because it enables God to relate to mankind "not coercively, but with counsel, admonition, warning, invitation, petition." Bavinck, ?:569-70. At this point I lean toward Goldingay’s position, but I don’t wish to dismiss Bavinck hastily.

Pinson, J. Matthew. "Thomas Grantham’s Theology of Atonement and Justification," Journal for Baptist Theology and Ministry 8, no. 1 (Spring 2011): 7-21.

Putman, Rhyne. "Response to J. Matthew Pinson’s ‘Thomas Grantham’s Theology of Atonement and Justification,’" Journal for Baptist Theology and Ministry 8, no. 1 (Spring 2011): 22-24.

Bass, Clint. "Response to J. Matthew Pinson’s ‘Thomas Grantham’s Theology of Atonement and Justification,’" Journal for Baptist Theology and Ministry 8, no. 1 (Spring 2011): 25-28.

Leondard, James. "Response to J. Matthew Pinson’s ‘Thomas Grantham’s Theology of Atonement and Justification,’" Journal for Baptist Theology and Ministry 8, no. 1 (Spring 2011): 29-33.

Pinson, J. Matthew. "Response to Panel," Journal for Baptist Theology and Ministry 8, no. 1 (Spring 2011): 34-39.

Matthew Pinson’s article makes the argument that seventeenth century General Baptist Thomas Grantham’s soteriology was Reformed as it pertained to the nature of the atonement (penal substitution) and the doctrine of imputation. Pinson contrast’s Grantham’s views on these matters with John Goodwin, an Arminian scholar who would influence John Wesley. Pinson has two goals in this article. The first is bring greater recognition to Grantham as a Baptist theologian deserving of more scholarly attention. The second is to demonstrate the theological breadth within Arminianism. Not all Arminians are Wesleyan. The responses are largely affirmative of Pinson’s article.

Goldingay, John. "Why Circumcision?" In Key Questions about Christian Faith: Old Testament Answers. Grand Rapids: Baker, 2010.

Goldingay seems overly concerned to interact with feminist concerns about why the sign of the covenant is only given to males. This modern question intrudes the historical and theological study and skews the discussion.

Murray, John. "The Fear of God." In Principles of Conduct: Aspects of Biblical Ethics. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1957.

Murray argues that the fear of the Lord is the "soul of godliness" in the New Testament as well as the Old. It is not a concept that may simply be relegated to an earlier, less gracious era. It is thus a concept that is deserving of careful attention. Murray identifies two senses for this phrase: terror/dread and veneration/honor. He argues that terror and dread are appropriate when sin gives people good reason to dread the judgment of God. Christians may fear God for the chastening that must come for disobedience, but their fear is not absolute dread. Christians have a real adoration and awe as those who are continually aware of God’s presence. Isaiah in the sixth chapter of his book is an example of the depth of this awe. This continual sense of God’s presence leads to obedience, Enoch and Abraham being two prime examples.

Bavinck, Herman. Reformed Dogmatics. Volume 4. Grand Rapids: Baker, 2008. [Read Part 1 on calling, regeneration, faith, conversion, justification, sanctification, and perseverance]

Bavinck’s Dogmatics may be the best systematic theology written to date. Even in areas in which the reader may disagree with his conclusions, Bavinck does such a good job of gathering all the relevant biblical data and surveying the various theological options that he provides an excellent starting point for examining a subject.

Bavinck often begins his discussion of a theological topic with a survey of all of the relevant biblical material. He weaves brief summaries of the key verses and passages into coherent paragraphs that provide and outline of the biblical teaching on that topic. This is often done with awareness to redemptive historical development. Bavinck is not engaged in actual exegesis here, but exegesis evidently stands behind his presentation. This biblical survey is followed by a history of the doctrine stretching from the early church up through late nineteenth and early twentieth century philosophy. Bavinck then evaluates the various doctrinal proposals surveyed.

This format is not followed rigidly, but it does describe in general his tendency to move through the exegetical, biblical theological, historical theological, and systematic theological disciplines.

Books

Hill, C. E. Who Chose the Gospels?: Probing the Great Gospel Conspiracy. Oxford University Press, 2010.

The fictional claims of Dan Brown, the sensationalized claims of Bart Ehrman, and the more scholarly arguments of Lee Martin McDonald, Ehrman, and others have promoted the idea of an early Christian movement notable for theological diversity. According to this storyline, the imposition of orthodoxy and a church-dictated canon of Scriptures stifled the creative diversity of the early church. Hill challenges this view by demonstrating that it is based on a faulty methodology, overstatements, and a sloppy handling of the evidence.

For instance, one scholar claims that "gospels were breeding like rabbits" (2). Yet that scholar finally lists only nine non-canonical gospels that have been discovered. This scholar calls his listing "partial." Hill notes, "It is not unlikley that more Gospels might have circulated before 175. But if they once existed, they have left no record, even in later lists of books to be avoided" (8).

Since Irenaeus provides an early testimony to the four-gospel canon, scholars promoting a late canon must marginalize him as an aberration (and not very nice, to boot). But Hill documents at least eight theologians (some of note) close to the time of Irenaeus who share his four gospel canon (Hill also argues that Irenaeus wasn’t as mean as some people make him out to be).

Having established that Irenaeus and the church of his era did have a four-gospel canon, Hill then works his way back by looking the citations of the four gospels and non-canonical works in the church fathers, gospel harmonies, and even the writings of the non-orthodox to demonstrate that evidence for the four gospel canon extends back to the early second century. Hill is fair in his interpretations of the evidence, noting when some of it is not as clear or a certain as other evidence.

So, to restate the title question, Who chose the Gospels? Hill’s answer to that question toward the end of the book is worth quoting at length:

Who, then, first chose the Gospels, if it wasn’t anybody in the fourth century? It wasn’t Origen, Tertullian, or Hippolytus in the first half of the third century, or Clement of Alexandria or Serapion at the end of the second. It wasn’t even Irenaeus or anyone writing in the last quarter of the second century. All these had inherited the same four Gospels from previous generations.

It wasn’t Tatian in Rome or Syria or Theophilus in Antioch. . . . It wasn’t Justin Martyr, who by the early 150s in Rome was using the same four Gospels, and treating evidently only these four as ‘Memoirs of the Apostles,’ composed by the apostles and their followers . . .

The evidence brings us, then, to an earlier time. But how much earlier? While the date prior to 150 are not quite so clear, the four Gospels are known as authoritative sources in the Epistle of the Apostles and the Apocryphon of James in the 140s. Papias, probably in the 120s, knows all four; Aristides, at about the same time, knows ‘the Gospel’ in multiple individual written expression, including Luke and John, and a decade earlier Ignatius knows at least Matthew and John. And sometime around the year 100 Papias’ elder discusses the origins of Matthew and Mark, and, if the argument summarized in chapter 10 is near the mark, Luke and John as well.

How is it that these four Gospels came to be known so widely from such an early time? There was certainly no great council of Christian churches before 150 which laid down the law on which Gospels to use. No single bishop, not even the bishop of Rome, should he ever have made such a proclamation (and there is no reason to think he did), had the clout to make it stick. If there was any authoritative figure who endorsed the four Gospels, the most viable option would have to be, as a tradition known to Origen and possibly Papias’ elder said, the aged apostle John. Such a story is a long, long way from historical verification, though that fact in itself does not make it impossible.

But if we set aside that story as likely to be legendary, our search appears to have reached a dead-end. We cannot find who chose the Gospels. It looks like nobody did. They almost seem to have chosen themselves through some sort of ‘natural selection.’ And this at least concurs with the conclusion of Bruce Metzger, one of the last generation’s premier scholars of the New Testament canon, who wrote, ‘neither individuals nor councils created the canon; instead they came to recognize and acknowledge the self0authenticating quality of these writings which imposed themselves as canonical upon the church" (227-29).

The idea of self-authenticating Scriptures may not sit well with some, but Hill notes that this best with the way the early Christians spoke about the gospels: "Christian writers of the second century do not speak of choosing the Gospels or of the criteria they might have created for making such choices. This is not the way they thought. When speaking of the church’s part in the process they instead use works like ‘receive,’ recognize,’ ‘confess,’ ‘acknowledge,’ and their opposites" (231).

In sum, Hill’s believing stance, tight argumentation, and engaging writing style made this one of the best books I’ve read this year. As an added benefit, I think it makes a marvelous case study in presuppositional apologetics that makes good use of evidences (though I must admit that I do not know how Hill would self-identify in terms of apologetic method).

Letham, Robert. Union with Christ: In Scripture, History, and Theology. P&R, 2011.

This is not an introductory book to the union of Christ theme. To adequately evaluate this book, I’d first need know a good deal about the doctrine already and then know something of the Greek Orthodox doctrine of deification to know whether Letham is making appropriate use of it in his discussion. I also find his view of union more sacramental—not Roman Catholic, but more Nevin than Hodge. In the end I came away without any clear definition of what union with Christ is.

Lewis, C. S. The Screwtape Letters. Focus on the Family Radio Theater. [Audiobook]

This is a well-done dramatization of a book that is difficult to dramatize (being a collection of letters). That said, I think I would probably prefer a well read audiobook to the dramatization with this particular book.

Greenblatt, Stephen. Hamlet in Purgatory.. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2001.

A Protestant Hamlet just returned from Wittenburg is confronted by his father’s purgatorial ghost. This strange happening sets Greenblatt off on a quest to understand the development of purgatory and the Protestant polemic against it. Eventually Greenblatt applies his research to Shakespeare’s plays and to Hamlet in particular. The research on purgatory and it’s reception history is well done.

Cole, Graham. God the Peacemaker: How Atonement Brings Shalom. Inter-Varsity Press, 2009.

This is a good book. Cole covers a great deal of ground from the nature and character of God to his ultimate goal for creation and redemption: his glory–and much in between. But this also proved to be a weakness of the book. It seems that he could have dropped material covered in depth in other works to focus on less treated aspects of the atonement which he was able to cover only superficially given his scope. His subtitle, "How atonement brings shalom" does not receive an in-depth answer. Nonetheless, it is a good book that points the intermediate theologian in the right direction on a number of crucial issues relating to the atonement.

Athanasius. On the Incarnation. Crestwood, NY: 1944; repr., St Vladimir’s Seminary Press, 1977.

Athanasisus’s work on the incarnation is actually a full theology organized in a creation, fall , redemption, apologetics structure. It is not without occasional errors, as Lewis notes in his justly famous introduction to this translation, but for the most part it is rich, devotion-inspiring theology. In his introduction, Lewis wrote, "For my own part I tend to find the doctrinal books often more helpful in devotion than the devotional books, and I rather suspect that the same experience may away may others. I believe that many who find that ‘nothing happens’ when they sit down, or kneel down, to a book of devotion, would find that their heart sings unbidden while they are working their way through a tough bit of theology" (8). That is certainly true with this work.

DiCamillo, Kate. Because Of Winn-Dixie. Cambridge, MA: Candlewick Press, 2000.

Leedy, Randy. Love Not the World: Winning the War Against Worldliness. Greenville, SC: Bob Jones University Press, 2012.

Discussing topics such as worldliness or eternal punishment or ecclesiastical boundaries are rarely enjoyable. The gospel, the new heavens and new earth, or the missionary advance of the church are more engaging topics. Nevertheless, ecclesiastical boundaries are necessary for healthy missionary advance. Understanding the punishment we all deserve for our guilt and sin is important for fully understanding the salvation we have in Christ. And understanding and applying Scriptural teaching about the world is essential for living out the gospel and its implications.

Leedy’s study of biblical theme of the world breaks into three parts. In two chapters he defines the world. Though this terminology is New Testament in origin, Leedy finds a parallel in Old Testament warnings for Israel not to conform to the nations. Since God’s New Testament people are multi-national, the Bible shifts from warning against conformity to the nations to warning against conformity to the world. Leedy does a good job documenting why this shift was necessary as well as surveying the varying senses of kosmos and aion, the two Greek words typically translated "world" in English versions. This section could have been strengthened, in my opinion, by reducing the space given to describing the difficulty that early Jewish Christians had in embracing Gentile Christians to make space for an examination of why world or age replaces nations in these warnings.*

The core of the book deals with the difficult task of defining what worldliness is. Based on the theological definition developed in the first part of the book, Leedy surveys various New Testament passages that describe worldliness. From this survey he is able to chart and categorize the explicit Scriptural descriptions of worldliness. But what about issues that the Scripture does not directly address? Leedy argues that the open-ended nature of Scriptural vice-lists compels Christians to acknowledge that Scripture does not provide a comprehensive list of worldly behaviors and attitudes to avoid. In other words, simply because it doesn’t show up in Scripture as explicitly prohibited doesn’t mean a Christian has the liberty to love it or do it. On the other hand, Leedy warns against simply adopting human lists of dos and don’ts. In the face of these false alternatives, Scripture demands discernment, and Leedy illustrates this by examining passages in which Scripture models this demand for discernment. His treatment of 1 Corinthians 8-10 is masterful, providing not only a clear outline of Paul’s argument but also a model for understanding how the epistolary authors reason with their readers. With this Scripture foundation in place, Leedy sets up a framework for applying Scripture to present-day culture.

The book’s final chapter moves into practical thoughts about overcoming worldliness. It begins with a serious consideration of cost of worldliness, before moving toward practical steps for resisting worldliness. This application is firmly grounded on the recognition of what Christ has accomplished in overcoming the world. Sanctification is not a matter of mere will power. It does involve means of grace, however. Leedy lists, "the indwelling Spirit, Scripture, prayer, and fellowship with other believers," and he develops at length the role Scripture study and meditation play in overcoming worldliness. No doubt space constraints played a role in focusing on Scripture, but this section would have been strengthened by a consideration of the other elements listed. I would have been especially interested in a discussion about the role of the indwelling Spirit.

In all, Leedy has provided a helpful guidebook to a distasteful but very important topic.

Articles

Hess, Richard S. “Yahweh’s ‘Wife’ and Belief in One God in the Old Testament.” In Do Historical Matters Matter to Faith?: A Critical Appraisal of Modern and Postmodern Approaches to Scripture. Edited by James K. Hoffmeier and Dennis R. Magary. Wheaton: Crossway, 2012.

By the late 1970 archaeological discoveries revealed inscriptions that paired Yahweh with Asherah. This has led some scholars to assert that the Israelites were not monotheistic until the time of Josiah or even until the time of the exile. Hess looks at inscriptions, cultic sites, iconography, and the presence of the divine name in people’s name. He concludes that it is difficult to demonstrate that monotheism did not exist early in Israel’s history. Furthermore, the difficulties in explaining how monotheism arose in the time of Josiah or during the exile coupled with the heavy dominance of the name of Yahweh in Israelite personal names makes the earlier existence of monotheism probable. Since Hess is arguing from archaeological evidence alone, this is the best conclusion he can reach. He does not engage in a defense of traditional dating of the biblical books nor does he make his case from Scripture.

Gumerlock, Francis X. “Mark 13:32 and Christ’s Supposed Ignorance: Four Patristic Solutions.” Trinity Journal 28, no. 2 (Fall 2007): 205-13.

The solutions Gumerlock documents are as follows: (1) Basil of Caesarea argued that the correct translation of the verse is "But of that day or hour no one knows, neither the angels in heaven, nor the Son, if not (ei me) the Father." Thus Jesus was claiming that he did know the time of his return, though if he was not one with the Father he would not know. (2) Augustine argues that know is used in the figurative sense reveal. The Son knows, but does not reveal the day or hour of his return. There is biblical precedence for this use of know (cf. Deut. 13:3). (3) Gregory of Tours takes son as a figurative designation for the church and father as a figurative designation for Christ (cf. John 13:33; Heb. 2:13). Further support for this view may be found in in the context of the Olivet discourse in which Jesus does describe his relationship to his followers in relational symbols (bridegroom/virgin; master/servant; thief/servant). (4) Athanasius taught that Jesus was conceding limited knowledge in his humanity while not denying the his divine omniscience.

Gumerlock notes that the fourth view is currently most popular, but it also raises the most serious theological objections. Subsequent to Athanasisus theologians came to believe that this position had Nestorian tendencies by ascribing knowledge to a nature and not to the person. And yet, opponents to the fourth solution do have trouble with other verses: Luke 2:52 and Heb. 5:8. The other three options do not raise serious theological problems, but they raise exegetical objections. Basil’s interpretation makes sense of the Greek text in Mark, but it runs contrary to the parallel passage, Matthew 24:36. Augustine’s view, taken consistently, would not deny knowledge of the timing of Christ’s return to persons or angels but simply affirms that those who know will not reveal it until the Father reveals it. Gumerlock finds this less likely in light of 1 Thess. 5:2; Rev. 3:3; Acts 1:7. Gregory of Tours’ interpretation is imaginative, but there is no compelling reason to think that Jesus intended his language here to be taken as symbolic.

In the end Gumerlock remains agnostic about the actual solution and maintains that all four patristic solutions are viable if not unproblematic.

Hasel, Michale G. “New Excavations at Khirbet Qeiyafa and the Early History of Judah.” In DDo Historical Matters Matter to Faith?: A Critical Appraisal of Modern and Postmodern Approaches to Scripture. Edited by James K. Hoffmeier and Dennis R. Magary. Wheaton: Crossway, 2012.

Argues against minimalists who deny a united kingdom. He bases his argument on the new excavations at Khirbet Qeiyafa.

Dvorak, James D. “John H. Elliott’s Social-Scientific Criticism.” Trinity Journal 28, no. 2 (Fall 2007): 251-278.

Dvorak argues that there is value for an interpreter to consider his own and the biblical author’s cultural backgrounds. It also helps interpreters avoid "theological docetism"—seeing theology as the only important aspect of the biblical text. Social-Scientific criticism can supplement and revitalize historical-critical approaches. Three dangers, exist, however. First, the interpreter may "over-read" the text and over-value his guesses as to what cultural element is reflected in the text. Second, the interpreter should not over-value this approach and undervalue other interpretive approaches. Third, the interpreter must be careful of eisegesis: reading a cultural situation into a text rather than out of the text.

Hoffmeier, James K. “Ramses of the Exodus Narrative Is the 13th Century B. C. Royal Ramesside Residence.” Trinity Journal 28, no. 2 (Fall 2007): 281-89.

Hoffmeier seems to have corrected some errors in a particular defense of the early date for the exodus, but his exegetical arguments for the later date remain unpersuasive.

Schnabel, Eckhard J. “Paul, Timothy, and Titus: The Assumption of a Pseudonymous Author and of Pseudonymous Recipients in the Light of Literary, Theological, and Historical Evidence.” In Do Historical Matters Matter to Faith?: A Critical Appraisal of Modern and Postmodern Approaches to Scripture. Edited by James K. Hoffmeier and Dennis R. Magary. Wheaton: Crossway, 2012.

Schnabel does a good job debunking the arguments against Pauline authorship of the pastoral epistles. Schnabel also investigates the views of the early church regarding pseudipigraphal writings and concludes that the church was not receptive of such writings. He concludes by examining the theological consequences of concluding the pastorals were not written by Paul. This investigation of the theological issues raised by points of biblical introduction is welcome.

Smith, James K. A. “Reforming Public Theology: Two Kingdoms, or Two Cities?” Calvin Theological Journal 47 (2012): 122-137.

Smith argues that VanDrunen and others are wrong to conflate Augustine’s Two Cities and Luther’s Two Kingdoms. A Christian cannot be a citizen of the Two Cities while he ought to be a citizen of both kingdoms. Smith finds the two cities paradigm more useful since it better reflects that antithesis between the Christian and the world while not raising that antithesis to the point where limited cooperation with unbelievers is impossible. Smith also believes that VanDrunen confuses the ontological existence of natural law with the epistemological question of an unbeliever’s knowledge of it. Smith does agree with VanDrunen and related scholars’ ecclesial emphasis and on the objections to neo-Calvinist triumphalism.

Ortiz, Steven M. “The Archaeology of David and Solomon: Method or Madness.” In Do Historical Matters Matter to Faith?: A Critical Appraisal of Modern and Postmodern Approaches to Scripture. Edited by James K. Hoffmeier and Dennis R. Magary. Wheaton: Crossway, 2012.

Reviews and demonstrates fallacies related to the low dating of Finkelstein and co.

In Stapert’s book on music in the early church, he ties this contemporary question (often answered negatively) to Tertullian’s answer to a similar question in his day.

‘There are certain people, of a faith somewhat simple or somewhat precise, who, when faced with this renunciation of the public shows, ask for the authority of Scripture and take their ground in uncertainty, because abstinence in this matter is not specifically and in so many words enjoined upon the servants of God.’ Tertullian has to admit that ‘we nowhere find it expressly laid down: ‘You shall not go to the circus, you shall not look at a content or show.’ But he finds the first Psalm relevant here: ‘Happy is the man who has not gone to the gathering of the impious, who has not stood in the way of sinners, not sat in the chair of pestilences.’

Calvin R. Stapert, A New Song for an Old World: Musical Thought in the Early Church (Calvin Institute of Christian Worship Liturgical Studies) (Eerdmans, 2007), 69.

Tertullian at first applies this Psalm almost allegorically to the shows (The Shows, iii), but as he develops his argument he lays out more substantive reasons for abstaining: the idolatry involved (iv, vii, ix, xi), the immorality of the performances (x; cf. Apuleius, The Golden Ass, 10.30-32; Pliny the Younger, Letters, 7.24.1, 4, 5), the passions they arouse (xv, xvi), and the violence they contain (xix, xxi; cf. Suetonius, The Lives of the Caesars: Nero, 11, 12).

Christians today would be wise to apply Tertullian’s insights to their entertainment choices.