Isaiah 11:6-9 is the famous passage in which the wolf dwells with the lamb and the baby can play by hole of the cobra because these animals will no longer kill or devour.

This has long been understood figuratively. The Puritan commentator Matthew Poole (Annotations, 2:354), for instance, wrote:

But this is not to be understood literally, which is a gross and vain conceit of some Jews; but spiritually and metaphorically, as is evident. And the sense of the metaphor is this, Men of fierce, and cruel, and ungovernable dispositions, shall be so transformed by the preaching of the gospel, and by the grace of Christ, that they shall become most humble, and gentle, and tractable, and shall no more vex and persecute those meek and poor ones mentioned ver. 4, but shall become such as they; of which we have instances in Saul being made a Paul, and in the rugged jailer, Acts 16, and in innumerable others.

John Oswalt rejects this interpretation (NICOT, 1:283):

A second means of interpretation is spiritualistic. The animals represent various spiritual conditions and states within human beings (cf. Calvin). While this avoids the problems of literal fulfillment, it introduces a host of other problems, chief of which is the absence in the text of any controls upon the process. Thus, it depends solely upon the exegete’s ingenuity to find the correspondences (contra 5:1-7, where the correspondence is clearly indicated).

But he also rejects what he calls a “literalistic” interpretation (NICOT, 1:283):

While this interpretation is possible, the fact that the lion’s carnivorousness is fundamental to what a lion is and that literal fulfillment of the prophecy would require a basic alteration of the lion’s nature suggest that another interpretation is intended.

Paul House reaches a similar conclusion (MC, 331):

One problem with taking the passage in a fully literal manner is the change in the physiological makeup of the animals. How can a carnivore exist on plants, for example?

Both Oswalt and House opt for a broadly figurative approach:

The third way of interpreting this passage, and others like it, is the figurative. In this approach one concludes that an extended figure of speech is being used to make a single, overarching point, namely, that in the Messiah’s reign the fears associated with insecurity, danger, and evil will be removed, not only for the individual but for the world as well (Rom. 8:19-21).

Oswalt, NICOT, 1:283.

The goal of the passage is not to give detailed information on what animals will eat in the eschaton, but rather it is to provide understandable images that offer comfort and challenge to the eighth-century B.C. audience. From this base, these images provide challenge and comfort for current readers.

House, MC, 331

I don’t understand the reticence of Oswalt and House to say that this passage is prophesying a change in actual animal behavior.

1. To say that a lion’s carnivorousness is fundamental to the lion’s nature is to deny the goodness of creation before the Fall, for it implies the existence of death before the Fall.
2. Thus the objection that this passage would require “change in the physiological makeup of the animals” is a strange objection given that such a change happened in the move from Creation to Fall. Why not such a change in the move from Fall to New Creation. House already said the best understanding of this passage was re-creation, not mere return to Eden nor reform. Cannot re-creation  involve changes in the “physiological makeup of the animals”?
3. To deny that this passage envisages a transformation of the animal world is to deny that Redemption extends as far as the Fall.
4. To deny that this passage envisages a transformation of the animal world is to neglect covenant promies of God. See Hosea 2:18; Eze 34:25.
5. Finally, the interpretation of Oswalt and House is very general. But, granting its validity, it would need to be lived out in concrete situations. It would seem that one of these concrete situations would be no fear of being killed by wild animals or poisonous snakes in the new creation. House already indicated that he believes the new creation is the time of fulfillment for this passage and that death will be abolished at that time.

Thus the better interpretation of this passage is that of Motyer (Isaiah, 124):

So secure is this peace that a youngster can exercise the dominion originally given to human kind. Secondly, in verse 7 there is a change of nature within the beasts themselves: cow and bear eat the same food, as do lion and ox. There is also a change in the very order of things itself: the herbivoral nature of all the creatures points to Eden restored (Gn. 1:29-30). Thirdly, in verse 8 the curse removed. The enmity between the woman’s seed and the serpent is gone (Gn. 3:15ab).”

See also Keil and Delitzsch, 7:184; E. J. Young, Isaiah 1:390-91; Geoffrey Grogan, Expositor’s Bible Commentary (rev. ed.), 6:545; Gary Smith, NAC, 268-69; Williamson, Sealed with an Oath, NSBT, 66; Edward Adams, The Stars Will Fall from Heaven, LNTS, 34.

Isaiah 11-12 is the conclusion of a major section of Isaiah that began in chapter 2. This section begins and ends with the eschatological reign of the King over Israel and the nations. In chapter 2 the king is identified as Yhwh; in chapter 11 he is identified as Davidic. In between Isaiah provides evidence that he is both God and man in one person. This major section can be divided into three sub-sections: 2-5, 6, 7-12.

Isaiah 9:8-10:4 describe the judgment that God would bring on Israel and Judah through Assyria. Isaiah 10:5-19 then reveals that once God is finished using Assyria to judge Israel and Judah, God will then judge Assyria for its wrongdoing.

However strong may be the connections of theme or wording with the previous passage, the opening phrase of 10:33 clearly marks the start of a new literary unit, as its comparable use in 3:1 shows (הנה + this particular elaborate form of the divine title + participle); indeed, here it even lacks the editorial conjunctive כי that we find there. Suggestions that the section should begin as early as 10:27 (e.g. Blum, ‘Jesajas prophetisches Testament’, 567, with previous literature documented; Roberts) cannot, therefore, be entertained. Equally clearly, והיה ביום ההוא in 11:10 (see on 7:18) indicates the start of the next unit, there being no indication of any break in between.

Williamson, ICC, 629.

Based on Williamson’s comment and reflections from Bauckham’s essay (“The Messianic Interpretation of Isaiah 10:34,” in The Jewish World around the New Testament [Grand Rapids: Baker, 2008]), this is how I would see these verses in context.

10:5-11 – Assyria is God’s rod against his people, though Assyria does not understand this.

10:12-14 – Assyria boasts of itself

10:15-19  – God will judge proud Assyria

10:20-23 – The eschatological promise of a returning remnant of Israel

10:24-27 – Application of the preceding teaching to Israel when the Assyrians come against them.

10:28-32 – A description of Assyria’s march through Israel to Jerusalem.

10:33-34 – The curtain is pulled back; God is the one lopping the boughs of Israel and bringing the lofty low and cutting the thickets of the forest with an axe. – Note that the axe imagery links back to 10:15—Yhwh wields the axe (Assyria) against Israel.

11:1 – Though God has hewn the lofty in Israel down, a shoot will come forth from the stump of Jesse.

Bauckham understands John the Baptist to allude to these passages, with the understanding that the Majestic One is the Messiah. Given the above understanding, if Bauckham is correct, John is not working from a direct messianic prediction in his allusion to 10:33-34. Instead, he is alluding to a historical judgment of the Lord Yhwh on Israel in the past and warning that the Messiah will bring such a judgment against Israel in the future if they do not repent.

Isaiah 56:9-66:24 forms the last major unit. I am generally unconvinced of chiastic structures on the macro level,[1] but this unit seems to be structured as a chiasm. As Abernethy says, “”While I am typically sceptical of chiastic structures, this one has strong textual merit and explanatory power.”[2]

A. Confronting the faithless insiders with judgment and assuring the faithful with salvation (56:9-59:8)

B. Prayer for forgiveness and restoration (59:9-15a)

C. The warrior king judges the wicked and redeems the repentant (59:15b-21)

D. Zion’s international renown amid King YHWH’s glory and his messenger (60-62)

C’. The warrior king judges and saves the nations (63:1-6)

B’. Prayer for forgiveness and restoration (63:7-64:12)

A’. Confronting the faithless insiders with judgment and assuring the faithful with salvation (65:1-66:24)[3]

Segment A (56:9-59:8) begins by calling for judgment on sinful Israel, and the sin of the people is once again expounded. In the midst of these judgment texts, however, are passages in which God promises redemption for the repentant. However, adhering to religious forms will not please God if it is not accompanied by righteous living.

In segment B (59:9-15a) Israel speaks in first person to confess its sins.

In segment C (59:15-21) Yhwh straps on his armor and comes as a warrior to “repay” sinners “according to their deeds” (59:18). But to those who repent, a “Redeemer will come to Zion,” and Yhwh will make a covenant that conveys the Spirit and the Word to them. Paul quotes this passage in Romans 11:26-27; this passage will find its ultimate fulfillment in the eschatological judgment that is followed by the salvation of all Israel.

Having mentioned the Redeemer who comes to Zion, segment D (chs. 60-62) turn the focus squarely upon Zion. Chapter 60 is a vision of the New Jerusalem (John draws heavily from this passage in Revelation 21-22). Jerusalem shines with the glory of Yhwh, and the nations stream into it with their wealth and worship. Then in chapter 61 the Messiah speaks (“Yhwh has anointed me”) of the Spirit empowering him for ministry. Jesus quoted this passage of himself in Luke 4:18-19 (cf. Matthew 11:5//Luke 7:22). It describes his ministry in both his first and second comings. The passage then speaks of the restoration of Israel in their land. Chapter 62 returns to the theme of Zion and coming of the nations to the city, but this chapter is couched in terms of anticipation of and preparation for that day.

Segment C’ (63:1-6) returns to the theme of the divine warrior. Here is a warrior who is treading down the peoples as if they are grapes in a winepress. It is the “day of vengeance” (63:4), but note that the day of vengeance is part of the “year of redemption” (63:4). The eschatological judgment of the nations prepares the way for the new creation. Revelation alludes to this passage when it speaks of “one like a son of man” who “gathered the grape harvest of the earth and thew it into the great winepress of the wrath of God” (Rev. 14:14, 19) and when it describes the returning Christ coming “clothed in a robe dipped in blood” (Rev. 19:13).

Segment B’ (63:7-64:12) is another prayer. It follows this scene of judgment with praise for God’s steadfast love and compassion for his people. It acknowledges Israel’s rebellion and calls on God to redeem his people. Segment A’ (65:1-66:24) begins with God’s answer to the preceding prayer. His answer is that he is now saving the Gentiles while judging unrepentant Israel (65:1-7). But there will be a time when Israel will be redeemed and restored (65:8-10). He therefore distinguishes, in a series of blessings and curses his servants from those who would reject his call (65:11-16). Then God declares the creation of new heavens and a new earth. Close attention to the details of this text shows that there is combined in this text what Revelation 20 will identify as the Millennium and Revelation 21 identifies as a succeeding new earth.[4] This should not be troublesome. The millennial period is the time in which Christ, as the second Adam leads his people to subdue and rule over the earth as Adam was originally commissioned to do. It is thus the period in which the new creation is being brought about. When God says, “For behold, I am creating a new heavens and a new earth,” a process may be implied. This glorious vision of the future, and the book as a whole, closes on a somber note. All redeemed humanity will worship Yhwh—and they will view the dead bodies of those in hell whose worm will not die. Clearly Isaiah’s is burdened that those who heard (and read) his message avail themselves of the redemption accomplished by the Servant rather than continue in their rebellion and suffer God’s wrath for eternity.

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[1] Oswalt captures my sentiments regarding chiastic structures: “I am very skeptical of hypotheses that depend on identifying elaborate structure, such as chiastic parallelism, extending over several chapters or even over the whole book. Not only do all these proposals seem to me to depend on misusing some of the data sooner or later, they also do not seem to take enough account of the way the motifs of the book appear and reappear. Thus, it is possible to create any number of these ‘structures,’ each one plausible and each one differing from the rest.” Oswalt, “Kerygmatic Structure,” in “God to the Land that I Will Show You”: Studies in Honor of Dwright Young, 147, n. 18, as cited in Wagner, 10, n. 20. That said, Oswalt does see a chiastic structure in Isaiah 56-66. NICOT, 2:15-16, 463-65; cf. Tully, Reading the Prophets as Christian Scripture, 155.

[2] Abernethy, NSBT, 22.

[3] This structure adapts the one found in Abernethy, NSBT, 84. The wording is Abernethy’s. However, Abernethy’s A and A’ lines have been dropped. His A line covered 56:10-8, which I have attached to the previous section. His A’ line covered 66:18-24, which I incorporated into his line B’ (65:1-66:17). I relettered the lines according to my adaption. Oswalt and Tully’s chiastic structure (see previous note) is similar to Abernethy’s original structure, the only difference being that they do not separate out the prayers in 59:1-15a and 63:7-64:12 but incorporate them into 56:9-59:15a and 63:7-66:17).

[4] For instance, 65:20 refers to the birth of infants and the death of the aged while Revelation 21:4 indicates that there will be no more death.

“Shout for joy, O barren one … Break forth into joyful shouting” is the exhortation that flows from Isaiah 53 and the atonement provided by the Servant.[1] Though there is a close connection between Isaiah 54:1-56:8 and Isaiah 53, these chapters are a new section. The bookends of Isaiah 401:1-11 and 52:7-12 indicated that that major section was coming to a close. One might then suppose that the final Servant song should begin a new section rather than end this section, but there is a major shift in Isaiah’s servant language after Isaiah 53. In Isaiah 40-53 the servant is always in the singular (whether it refers to the nation or to the Messiah), but after Isaiah 53 the occurrence of servant is always in the plural. Thus, a major break in the book occurs with the climatic 53^rd chapter.[2] Notably, just as the text preceding Isaiah 53 captured in one text several of the most important theological themes in Scripture, Isaiah 54-55 brings together all the biblical covenants in a single passage. It opens with an allusion to the Abrahamic covenant (54:1-3). Sarah, the barren one, would become the mother of an innumerable seed. The enlargement of the tent and “spread[ing] abroad to the right and to the left” alludes to Genesis 28:14: “Your offspring shall be like the dust of the earth, and you shall spread abroad to the west and to the east and to the north and to the south, and in you and your offspring shall all the families of the earth be blessed.”[3] In fulfillment of the Abrahamic covenant, Israel will possess the nations. There may also be an allusion to Genesis 9:27, “and let him [Japheth] dwell in the tents of Shem.” In verses 9-10 there is an explicit reference to the Noahic covenant. God says that just as he committed in the Noahic covenant not to flood the earth again, so his new covenant commitments (here identified as the covenant of peace) will be maintained. He then looks forward to the New Jerusalem, filled with the righteous and immune to attack. In chapter 55 Isaiah calls all people to come to Yhwh for satisfaction and to seek Yhwh rather than wickedness or any other thing, since those will not satisfy. In this context Yhwh says that the covenant promises he made with David will be taken up into the new covenant (here called the “everlasting covenant”) and fulfilled among all the nations. In 56:1-8 those who were excluded from temple worship under the Mosaic covenant, the eunuch and the foreigner will keep God’s covenant and worship Yhwh in his house, which is to be “a house of prayer for all peoples” (56:7). When the Lord Yhwh gathers “the outcasts of Israel,” he will also gather “others,” Gentiles (56:8).

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[1] Oswalt, NICOT, 2:413-14; Motyer, 444; Williamson, Sealed with an Oath, NSBT, 160-61.

[2] See Daniel L. Wagner, “The Dynamic ‘Structure’ of Isaiah 40-66: An Analysis of Organization Based on Transitions in the Servant and Other Orienting Motifs,” PhD diss. Bob Jones University, 2004.

[3] Motyer, 445.

Isaiah 40 marks a major shift in the book of Isaiah. In the closing verses of ch. 39, Hezekiah was told that the people will be sent into exile. Chapter 40 opens with words of comfort. Isaiah also alludes to the covenant formula, “I will be your God, and you will be my people.” Exile will not be the last word. Isaiah 40:1-2 also mentions that Israel’s great problem will be addressed: her iniquity will be removed; she has received the double for all her sins. How this will be effected will be most clearly explained in Isaiah 53, the closing chapter of the major section that runs from Isaiah 40-53.

This major section is comprised of two sub-sections, the first of which is Isaiah 40-48. This section opens with a voice calling. First, it calls for the way to be cleared for the coming of Yhwh (40:3-5). Some interpret this as referring to a second exodus as the exiles return from Babylon, but the text is clearly referring to the return of Yhwh, not the return of the exiles.[1] God’s presence is the most important thing to be restored to the people when the people are restored from their sin. Second, the voice affirms the enduring reliability of God’s Word (40:6-8). What follows is the content of that word from God (40:9), and that content is extols the incomparably unique glory of the sovereign Yhwh. This is a motif that Isaiah will weave throughout this entire section. Alongside this motif is another: the vanity of idols. The chief thing Isaiah highlights in setting Yhwh apart from idols is that he can predict the future, telling the end from the beginning. Only in chapter 41 does Isaiah introduce the theme of Israel’s return from exile, and that obliquely. He introduces “one from the east” (41:2), who will later be identified as Cyrus (45:28, 45:1). The Cyrus prophecy was given to show that “I am Yhwh, and there is no other; besides me there is no God” (45:5) (the first two motifs noted), and it does so through an amazing predictive prophecy (naming Cyrus 150 years before he took these actions). It also promises the rebuilding of Jerusalem, the temple, and the cities of Judah (44:26-28). The theme of return from exile thus runs through this section and is the focus of the final verses of chapter 48. Also introduced in this section is the servant of Yhwh theme. The servant is introduced in 41:8, where the servant is identified as Israel. In chapter 42 the Servant is an individual: Behold my servant, whom I uphold, my chosen, in whom my soul delights; I have put my Spirit upon him” (42:1, emphasis added). Abernethy notes, “A discerning reader should detect similarities between 42:1 and the task of the Davidic ruler as described in Isaiah 1–39. Like the Davidic ruler, the servant is an agent who receives God’s ‘Spirit’ (42:1//11:2) and establishes ‘justice’ (42:1, 3, 4; 9:7[6]; 16:5; 32:1; cf. 11:4).”[2] Since the king represents the nation, it is fitting for the servant to be both the nation and its federal head, the King. Later in the chapter, the focus shifts back to Israel, “Who is blind but my servant” (42:19). The servant for the rest of this section is the nation, though the focus shifts to the servant’s redemption (43:8-13; 44:1-5, 21-45:8; 48:20).

Isaiah 49-53, the second part of the section that runs from chapter 40 through chapter 53, emphasizes how Yhwh will redeem Israel—through his Servant. In this section the Servant is in every instance the individual Servant that chapter 42 introduced and linked with the Davidic Messiah. Chapter 49 begins with the Servant calling out to the nations to listen. This servant, as the king of Israel, can be called Israel and his purpose from the womb has been to redeem Israel. But here it is revealed that this Servant Israel will also redeem the nations along with the nation Israel. Israel is spoken to as exiled for its sin, but just as God redeemed Israel from Egypt, God will redeem Israel from exile and sin (50:1-3). He will do this through the Servant, who (unlike the nation) listened to and obeyed the words of Yhwh. This obedient Servant will be beaten and humiliated, but he will not be disgraced, for Yhwh will vindicate him (50:4-9). Those who fear Yhwh and pursue righteousness are directed back to the promises of the Abrahamic covenant for the promises of God and then forward to the new creation and the new covenant when God’s law will be written on their hearts (50:10-8). The people call on God to redeem them as he did in the exodus (51:9-11), and Yhwh promises redemption and the end of judgment (51:12-52:6). This section begins to draw to a close with 52:7-12, which is full of language drawn first from 40:1-11.[3] These verses also bring together many themes that run right through Scripture from beginning to end. Jonathan Pennington comments, “Here is one of the single most important passages for a whole-Bible theology because in it we see the interconnectedness of multiple lines of overlapping truth: good news/gospel, salvation, God’s reign or kingdom, and peace/shālôm.”[4] This key text is followed by the final Servant song, which makes explicit that the redemption of Israel and the nations will take place through the substitutionary death and resurrection of the Servant.

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[1] So Alexander, 2:95-96; Young, 3:28; Oswalt, NICOT, 2:51-52; Motyer, 300; Smith, NAC, 2:95-96; Steveson, 337, n. 9; Abernethy, NSBT, 56-57.

[2] Abernethy, NSBT, 139. Abernethy, however, does not identify the Messiah and the Servant directly. I would identify them.

[3] See Table 2.1 in Abernethy, NSBT, 63.

[4] Jonathan T. Pennington, “A Biblical Theology of Human Flourishing,” (Delivered at the Institute for Faith, Work, and Economics, 2015), 7.

After the series of oracles against the nations, the next major section (28-35) is comprised of six woes (28:1-29; 29:1-14; 29:15-24; 30:1-33; 31:1-32:20; 33:1-24) followed by an eschatological section that predicts Yhwh’s destruction and restoration of the earth (34-35).[1] The first five of these woes are directed against Israel and Judah. They are primarily historical in focus (from our perspective). However, as they progress, there are increasing references to future deliverance until the final woe oracle, which is directed not at Israel and Judah but at Assyria. Tully notes, “The theme that runs through this section is trust.”[2] God’s people are not to trust Egypt or their own military might. They are to trust the Holy One of Israel alone.

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[1] The KJV, NASB, LSB, NIV, CSB all translate הוֹי “woe” while the ESV tends to translate it “ah,” though it does use “woe” on one occasion. The ESV’s inconsistency masks the structure in this section.

[2] Tully, Reading the Prophets as Christian Scripture,

The next major section is Isaiah 13-27. This section is a series of oracles against nations. In chapters 13-23 the series of oracles are marked with the phrase “The oracle concerning _______.” Chapters 24-27 are not marked by this formula, but they form the climax to this section by moving from oracles against specific nations to eschatological judgment on the entire world.[1]

Just as the preceding major section both opened and closed with an eschatological vision of the divine Davidic Messiah reigning over all the nations from Jerusalem, so this major section begins with an oracle regarding the judgment of the eschatological day of Yhwh (13:1-14:27) and ends with visions of the same (chs. 24-27). The first oracle concerns Babylon. Since Babel (the same word in Hebrew as Babylon) is the site of the great rebellion of all mankind against God after the Flood, it has served as a fitting exemplar for human rebellion against God down through the ages; the term is still used in Revelation of the human systems and power arrayed against God. While historical Babylon is not absent from consideration (note the reference to the Medes being stirred up against them in 13:17), this historical day of Yhwh judgment is linked with the ultimate, universal day of Yhwh judgment. This pattern is common in the prophets.[2] This prophecy of judgment (13:1-22) is followed within the oracle with a prediction of Israel’s restoration (14:1-2), during which time Israel will take up a taunt against the final king of Babylon, the Antichrist.[3] This being will seek to ascend to heaven, but that will not be not high enough. He will seek to set his throne above the stars of God (the angels, cf. Job 38:7). He will say, “I will sit on the mount of assembly in the far reaches of the north,” or “in the sides of Zaphon.” Mount Zaphon probably refers to a mountain in Syria that was reputed to be the mountain of the gods, as Mount Olympus was to the Greeks.[4] But Psalm 48:2 equates the “sides of Zaphon” with “Mount Zion…the city of the great King.”[5] Thus, he wants the throne of the Messiah. The “Mount of Assembly” sounds like the “Tent of Assembly,” which would locate the throne in the temple.[6] Then, to emphasize the heights he is determined to attain, he will say, “I will go up above the high places of the clouds, I will make myself like the Most High” (pers. trans.). This is what Paul prophesied of the Antichrist in 2 Thessalonians 2:4, “he takes his seat in the temple of God, proclaiming himself to be God.” Isaiah 14 records the taunt of God’s people after he has been brought down. This first oracle closes by turning from eschatological Babylon to the destruction of historical Assyria (14:24-25). This historical judgment on Assyria is likely given as a sign that the future judgment will come to pass as predicted.[7] That the oracle as a whole is universal is confirmed in the final two verses (14:26-27).

Following this opening oracle are a series of oracles concerning Philistia (14:28-32); Moab (15:1-16:14), Syria (17:1-14),[8] Cush (18:1-7), Egypt (19:1-20:6). A second series of oracles follows: and oracles concerning “the wilderness of the sea” (Babylon, 21:1-10), “Dumah” or “silence” (Edom, 21:11-12), Arabia (21:13-17), the valley of vision (Jerusalem, 22:1-25), Tyre (23:1-18). Most of the oracles concern historical judgments on the nations surrounding Israel. But scattered throughout these prophecies are messianic prophecies and typology (e.g., 16:5; 22:20-25). The lengthiest of these comes in the final oracle of the first cycle, in which a Savior will come to Egypt, where Yhwh will then be worshiped. The Assyrians and the Egyptians will be God’s people along with Israel.

Isaiah 24-27 concludes this major section of Isaiah by turning to the future, universal judgment: “Behold, Yhwh will empty the earth and make it desolate.” Until this time, the Noahic covenant (in 24:5 called the “everlasting covenant”; cf. Gen 9:16), has restrained God’s curse of judgment from destroying the world repeatedly. In this final day of Yhwh, the Noahic covenant will reach its ordained endpoint, and those inhabitants of the earth who have transgressed its laws now come under this final destruction. Those defeated will be held in a pit for many days and then will be punished after the reign of Yhwh on Mount Zion.[9] There are also two cities mentioned in these chapters. One city is destroyed in judgment, but the city of Zion is raised up as a city to which the nations will come to celebrate the defeat of death and the wiping away of all tears (25:6-8). These chapters reveal, “In that day Yhwh with his hard and great and strong sword will punish Levithan the fleeing serpent, Levithan the twisting serpent, and he will slay the dragon that is in the sea” (27:1). That is Yhwh will defeat with finality “the great dragon…, that ancient serpent who is called the devil and Satan” (Rev 12:9).

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[1] Oswalt, 440-41; Wolf, 44, Steveson, 194.

[2] “On one pattern, the discourse first envisages judgement on a universal scale then moves to a particular focus. In the other, the discourse first refers to a particular target and then grounds the announcement of local doom in a declaration of universal judgement.” Edward Adams, The Stars Will Fall from Heaven: Cosmic Catastrophe in the New Testament and Its World (LNTS 347; London: T&T Clark, 2007), 43; referencing Paul Raabe, “The Particularizing of Universal Judgment in Prophetic Discourse,” CBQ 64: 652-74.

[3] Though the king of Babylon has often been associated with Satan by interpreters, one of the earliest interpreters identifies him as the Antichrist. Hippolytus of Rome, “Treatise on Christ and Antichrist,” §17.

[4] Oswalt, NICOT, 1:322.

[5] Motyer says, the “implication [is] that if there should be such a place as ‘the apex of Zaphon’ it would be Zion.” Motyer, Isaiah, 145.

[6] Alexander, 296-97.

[7] Little, Israel’s Eschatological Enemy, 42, 59.

[8] Syria is identified by its capital city, Damascus. The northern kingdom of Israel is also included in this oracle because of its alliance with Syria during this time. Wolf, Interpreting Isaiah, 119.

[9] The “many days” likely refer to what Revelation 20 will identify as a 1,000 year period. Culver, Daniel and the Latter Days, 31-32; Blaising & Bock, Progressive Dispensationalism, 274-75; Blaising, “The Kingdom That Comes with Jesus: Premillennialism and the Harmony of Scripture,” Southern Baptist Journal of Theology 14, no. 1 (2010): 6, 11, 33-34.

Isaiah 1 serves as an introduction to the book as a whole. It announces the subject of the prophecy in the opening verse: “which he says concerning Judah and Jerusalem.” Though this may at first seem a narrow focus, the summoned audience is universal: “Hear, O heavens, and give ear, O earth” (1:2). Echoing the language of Deuteronomy,[1] Isaiah describes the sinfulness of Israel in poetic terms that highlight the depth and destructiveness of their rebellion. Fundamentally, however, “they have despised the Holy One of Israel.” He declares that the nations will overthrow them. He rejects their worship, which is offensive to God since they offer it as unrepentant rebels. The chapter then reaches a climax as Yhwh calls them to repent and promises cleansing and restoration—while threating judgment if they continue to rebel (1:16-20). But Isaiah turns back in verse 21 to describing Judah and Jerusalem’s sinfulness. Once again judgment is declared, but this time it is described as a refining that removes the dross and alloy. God is determined to restore Zion. And yet the contrast between the repentant and the rebel is maintained (1:28). This first chapter, thus sets up the major themes of the book and raises before the reader the question of whether they will be part of the repentant, cleansed, holy people of their holy God or remain rebels who will be consumed by a holy God.

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[1] Block, Deuteronomy, NIVAC, 751, n. 22.