Exegesis and Theology

The Blog of Brian Collins

Structure and Summary of Joel

by

After the superscription, Joel can be divided into six major sections: 1:2-20; 2:1-11; 2:12-17; 2:18-27; 2:28-32; 3:1-21.[1]

Verse 1 identifies the author of the book as Joel, the Son of Pethuel. Nothing further is known about the author except that he received the word of Yhwh recorded in this book.

Joel 1:2-20 recounts a plague of locusts that have descended upon the Israelites in Judah. Joel begins by calling out to the elderly to confirm that this locust plague was like nothing they or their fathers had ever experienced.  This would be a plague that would be recounted generation after generation due to its severity. The drunkards are told to weep because there is no wine to drink. But more seriously, this judgment prevents them from worshipping God through the grain and drink offerings. Their sin has brought a judgment that deprived them of proper worship. In verse 15 Joel identifies this plague as the day of Yhwh. He says the day of Yhwh is near, which doesn’t mean that the day of Yhwh is something other than the locust plague. Rather, the Day of Yhwh is so near that it is upon them.

The second major section 2:1-11 has occasioned debate. Does it refer to (1) a locust invasion in Joel’s day that prefigures the eschatological day of Yhwh,[2] (2) a now past military invasion described under the figure of locusts,[3] (3) an eschatological locust plague,[4] (4) an eschatological military invasion.[5] It is best to understand this passage to be about locusts; they are described as “like war horses,” “like warriors,” and “like soldiers”—which indicates that they are not themselves horses, warriors, or soldiers.[6] It is unlikely that chapter 2 is a continued description of the locust plague recounted in chapter 1 since the verbs in chapter 1 indicate that Joel was referring to a past event, whereas in chapter 2 the verbs indicate that he is speaking of a future event.[7] In addition, the locusts described in chapter 2 will be unprecedented: “their like has never been before, nor will be again after them through the years of all generations” (2:3). In fact, there are several elements in the passage that indicate these are not normal locusts: they are opposed with weapons, and they are described not as destroying crops but as invading cities.[8]

The third major section (2:12-17) is a call to repentance. No one can endure the judgment of the day of Yhwh (2:11) and therefore repentance is called for. This repentance is not to be merely external (the rending of garments) but internal (the rending of hearts). Repentance from the heart is what the first great commandment demands, and a new heart is what the new covenant promised. The hope that God would receive their repentance is based on God’s declaration to Moses of his character. And yet God’s grace and mercy are not presumed upon: “Who knows” (2:14). Note also that Joel highlights as the foremost blessing of forgiveness the restoration of true worship (the ability to offer grain and drink offerings). Thus, all the people, from the oldest to the youngest (and including those normally exempt from such gatherings, the bride and bridegroom [cf. Dt 24:5]) are to gather to beg for mercy. Their main concern, Joel indicates, is to be God’s glory (2:17).

Evidently the Israelites responded with repentance because the fourth section of the book describes God’s response to their repentance (2:18-27). While some of the promised restoration seems to be directed at restoring the land after the locust plague (e.g., “I will restore to you the years that the swarming locusts has eaten,” 2:25), other promises were not fulfilled in Joel’s day: “And my people shall never again be put to shame.” Israel would still face conquest by Babylon and Rome; Israel would again be put to shame. There is in this section a telescoping of the now past and the still future.[9]

The fifth section of the book (2:28-32) looks forward to the eschatological gift of the Spirit, the ultimate day of Yhwh judgment on the whole earth, and the hope of salvation for those who call upon the name of Yhwh. That a remnant will be saved has already been prophesied by Obadiah.[10] Joel turns to the judgment of the nations in the sixth section (3:1-21) of the book. This section recounts the sins the nations surrounding Judah have committed against God’s people Israel. As a result, God will judge the nations. Some of the judgments described seem to have already happened (3:4-8), while other judgments seem to be eschatological (3:1-3, 9-17, 19, 21). As a counterpoint to this judgment, God promises eschatological blessing to Judah and Jerusalem that is described in terms of a reversal of the locust judgment described in chapters 1 and 2.[11]

[1] The first section is recognized by Garret, Dillard, Stuart, Crenshaw, Tully, and Nass. The second section is recognized by Garrett, Stuart, Crenshaw, Hubbard, Tully, Barker, and Nass (as a subjection of 2:1-17). The third section is recognized by Stuart, Crenshaw, Hubbard, Tully Barker, and Nass (as a subjection of 2:1-17). The fourth section is recognized by Stuart, Crenshaw, Hubbard, Tully, Barker, and Nass. The fifth section is recognized by Garrett, Stuart, Finley, Crenshaw, Hubbard, Tully, Barker, and Nass (as a subsection of 2:28-3:21). The sixth section is recognized by Garrett, Stuart, Finley, Hubbard, Tully, Barker, and Nass (as two subsections of 2:28-3:21).

[2] Bell, The Theological Messages of the Old Testament Books, 384-85; Barker, ZECOT, 75-77; Harman, ESVEC, 268.

[3] Patterson, REBC,.

[4] Grisanti, “The Book of Joel,” in The World and the Word, 425-26; cf. Busenitz, MC, 116.

[5] Tully, Reading the Prophets as Christian Scripture, 269; Busenitz, MC, 113-15.

[6] Grisanti, “The Book of Joel, 425.

[7] Garrett, NAC, 333; Nass, CC, 203. If the locust plague in chapter 2 is considered to be the same as that of chapter 1, it would need to be a second wave of locusts.

[8] Nass, CC, 216. These are two elements from a series of three lists that Nass presents: “Features of the Army that Do Not Fit Perfectly with Locusts,” “Features of the Army that Do Not Fit Perfectly with Human Soldiers,” and “Features of the Army that Do Not fit Perfectly with Locusts or Human Soldiers.” Under the last heading Nass lists, “Fire burns before them”; “The earth and heavens shake before them”; “The sun, moon, and stars go dark before them.” Nass concludes from this data that Joel 2:1-11 refers to a composite of the day of Yhwh throughout history, culminating in the eschatological day of Yhwh. But it is more likely that Joel 2 is describing the same events that Revelation describes as the first, fourth, and fifth trumpet judgments.

[9] Michael P. V. Barrett, “Pentecost and Other Blessings: Joel 2:21–28,” Puritan Reformed Journal 12, no. 2 (2020): 8–9. Since the two preceding sections of judgment refer to a near and an eschatological judgment, it makes sense for the description of restoration to include both near and eschatological restoration.

[10] There is some debate about what it would mean for the sun to be turned to darkness and the moon to blood “before the great and awesome day of Yhwh comes.” These seem to describe the kind of events that would characterize the day of Yhwh. There are two possible solutions. (1) Some note that the preposition translated before can simply mean “in the presence of.” Thus, a temporal meaning is not necessary here and should not be advocated. Busenitz, MC, 190-91; cf. Stuart, WBC, 257. Against this, when לִפְנֵי בּוֹא are used together, a temporal meaning of before is always indicated (1 Sam 9:15; 2 Sam 3:35; Eze 33:22; Mal 4:5). Nass, CC, 448. (2) Others note that the Day of Yhwh is a multifaceted event and that the phrase may be used of a specific part of the overall day, thus allowing for the darkened sun and blood-red moon to be both part of the overall day of Yhwh and yet precede the specific aspect designated Day of Yhwh in these verses. Finley, WEC, 75; Blaising, “A Pretribulation Response,” in Three Views on the Rapture, 246–47; Fanning, Revelation, ZECNT, 270, n. 1. Some would even argue that the fuller phrase “the great and awesome day of Yhwh” is “a technical expression that refers to the last half of the seventieth week [prophesied in Daniel 9].” Alan D. Cole, “A Critique of the Prewrath Interpretation of the Day of the Lord in Joel 2–3,” Detroit Baptist Seminary Journal Volume 9 (2004): 49.

[11] See Tully, Reading the Prophets as Christian Scripture, 272.

Structure and Summary of Obadiah

by

After the superscription, Obadiah can be divided into four major sections, each marked with a “speech formula,” thus dividing the book into four major sections: 1b-4, 5-7, 8-18, 19-21.[1] The third, and longest section, can be divided into four additional sub-sections. Verses 8-9 refer to Edom in the third person and pronounce a day of Yhwh judgment upon it. Verses 10-11 directly address Edom for what it did to Judah and Jerusalem. Verses 12-14 warn Edom against future actions against Judah. Verses 15-18 turn to the ultimate day of the Yhwh judgment.

Verse 1a identifies the prophet who wrote this book as Obadiah, a name the means “servant of Yhwh.”[2] Nothing further is known about the prophet. If our dating of the book is correct, Obadiah is not the same man who was over Ahab’s household in the time of Elijah (cf., 1 Kgs 18:3-7, 16). The name occurs several other times in the Old Testament (1 Chr 3:21; 9:44; 12:9; 2 Chr 17:7; 34:12), but this prophet cannot be identified with any of these men.[3] The prophecy is called a vision, which “serves as a technical term for a revelation of a ‘prophet.’”[4]

In the first speech, of the Lord Yhwh addresses Edom (1b-4). Though most translations, going back to the KJV, render this “concerning Edom,” the usage here as part of a messenger formula indicates makes it more likely that the Lord Yhwh is addressing Edom in this prophecy not merely rhetorically but historically.[5] Obadiah reveals that he has heard from Yhwh that a messenger has been sent among the nations to cause them to rise up and fight Edom. This is probably best understood as an angelic messenger from Yhwh to stir up the nations.[6] Yhwh then declares that has made Edom small and despised. Edom is proud in its mountain fastness. The Edomites think that no one can bring them down. But the Lord says that even if Edom was high in the sky like an eagle who made its nest (not high in the trees) but among the stars—even from there Yhwh would bring Edom down. This is certain. It is the declaration of Yhwh.

In the second speech (5-7), Yhwh turns to the extent of the judgment that Esau will face. He presents Esau with two scenarios. In the first thieves and plunders come at night. In the second gatherers go out in a vineyard to gather grapes. Yhwh says that even thieves still what is sufficient for them, and grape-gatherers leave gleanings for the poor. But Esau will be utterly pillaged. Further, it will be Edom’s allies who will turn against it. Edom was known as a nation renowned for its wisdom, but Yhwh declares, “You have no understanding.”

In the third speech (8-18) Yhwh reiterates the day of Yhwh judgment that will befall Edom (8-9), reveals what Edom did to provoke this judgment (10-11), warn Edom against future actions against Judah (12-14), and closes by linking the judgment against Edom to the eschatological day of Yhwh (15-18).

In Edom’s day of Yhwh judgment, Yhwh will destroy the wise and understanding men from Mount Esau. In fact, Edom will be entirely destroyed. Furthermore, Edom’s warriors will be slaughtered (8-9).

Verses 10-11 reveal why Edom will receive these judgments. Edom had acted violently against Judah when other nations attacked Jerusalem, and Edom did not intervene to aid Judah.

In verses 12-14 Yhwh warns Edom against acting toward Judah in a similar manner in the future. Incidentally, this passage presumes there is a day of misfortune, ruin, distress, and calamity in Judah’s future. When that day comes, Edom is not to align itself against Judah.

Verses 15-18 provide a reason for avoiding further opposition to Judah: the day of Yhwh is near. Here the message broadens out to include all nations. The standard of judgment is what the nations have done to others. They will have the same done to them. Just as Edom drank on God’s holy mountain in celebration of Jerusalem’s fall, so all the nations (Edom included) will drink the cup of God’s wrath.[7] The result of this judgment is the annihilation of the nations.[8] During this ultimate day of Yhwh, Mount Zion is a holy place once again, and it becomes a refuge for those who escape. There is also an eschatological realization of the conquest of the land as the house of Jacob possesses its own possessions again. Verse 18 implies a reunited Israel (“house of Jacob” and “house of Joseph”). The reunited Israel will consume the house of Esau like stubble, leaving no survivor.[9]

The final speech (19-21) continues the theme of Israel’s repossession of the land. In this listing, Israel obtains possession of its surrounding enemies, with territories at all points of the compass listed, indicating a possession of all the land promised to Israel. In addition, this passage predicts the return of the exiles and the reunification of the two kingdoms. Deliverers, a term used in Judges to describe those God sent to deliver a sinful Israel from oppression will now rule over Mount Esau from Mount Zion. This allusion to deliverers ruling over Edom could indicate that these are deliverers that deliver Edom and rule over redeemed Edomites in the Messianic kingdom.[10] In the end, “and the kingdom shall be Yhwh’s.” As Niehaus observes, “Obadiah’s message concludes with an expectation of the day when we may say, ‘The kingdom of the world has become the kingdom of our Lord / and of his Messiah / and he will reign forever and ever’ (Rev. 11:15).”[11] All nations will come under the lordship of Yhwh.

[1] Raabe, AB, 18.

[2] Niehaus, 511; Block, ZECOT, 49.

[3] Niehaus, 511;

[4] Raabe, AB, 94; cf. Niehaus, 511.

[5] See Raabe, AB, 107 for argumentation.

[6] Niehaus, 513; Raabe, AB, 113-14; Block, ZECOT, 53.

[7] Stuart, WBC, 420; Finley, WEC, 371-72; Niehaus, 2:535-36; Rogland, ESVEC, 383-84. The other option is that the “you” who drank on Yhwh’s holy mountain is Judah. In this interpretation, just as Judah drank God’s wrath so the nations will drink God’s wrath. Against this view, the “you” addressed throughout the book has been Edom. Proponents of view note that this is a plural you, rather than the singular you used to refer to Edom throughout the rest of the book. Raabe, AB, 203. Critics of this view argue against the abrupt introduction of Judah by a pronoun. Critics of the view represented in the main text above argue that it must understand the significance of drinking differently between the first and second parts of the verse. Finley, WEC, 371-72.

[8] Since the nations, including Edom, are represented elsewhere in Scripture as being present in Millennium and new creation, this annihilation of the nations does not include the remnant of the saved within the nations. It thus is an annihilation of the present world order with evil nations and not a removal of the nations as such. See Timmer, TOTC.

[9] On no survivors from Edom, see previous note. The context for this judgment on Edom is eschatological (see Finley and Busenitz). But Edom seems to have already ceased existence. Is it possible that Israel being a fire that burns up the stubble of Esau refers not to eschatological military action by Israel against Edom but instead reflects God’s eschatological judgment proleptically visited by God on Edom through other nations. The judgment was due to mistreatment of Israel (hence Israel as a flame) rather than Israel as the agent of judgment. Or perhaps Israel acting as a flame refers to Edom’s assimilation into Israel so that it is no longer a nation? I don’t see this view in the literature anywhere, and it will need to be tested against other passages which may speak of an eschatological judgment of Edom.

[10] Robertson, Christ of the Prophets, 248-49 / 168-70. In support of this Robertson observes that Amos, the book preceding Obadiah, concludes by speaking of the Davidic king possessing the remnant of Edom. Robertson does not note this, but it may be significant that the next prophet, Jonah, is about the gospel going to Gentiles.

[11] Niehaus 1993: 541.

Thoughts on an Interview with Tom Schreiner on the Millennium

by

In this interview with Tom Schreiner on his forthcoming Revelation commentary in the Baker Exegetical series, he discusses his current view of the Millennium.

Schreiner has famously shifted between premillennial and amillennial views of Revelation 20. In his forthcoming commentary he argues that Revelation 20 is the first stage of the new creation. He agrees with premillennialists that Satan is entirely bound during this time and that the bodily resurrection of believers is the “first resurrection” mentioned in Revelation 20. He notes that if the “first resurrection” is not the bodily resurrection, Revelation would have no mention of the ultimate vindication of the saints.  However, because he sees this period as part of the new creation, he does not see any non-glorified saints in Revelation 20. All the wicked are judged and all the saints are glorified. He also understands all of the “famous so-called millennial passages” in the OT are fulfilled in the new creation; he observes that they are copiously quoted in Revelation 21-22.

He notes that the big problem with his new creation view is the final battle in 20:7-10 . Who joins Satan in this final battle against the saints? His solution: these are those who were raised from the dead before the final judgment.

In many ways Schreiner’s view is similar to my own (and to that of Robert Duncan Culver in Daniel and the Latter Days). I too see the Revelation 20 as the first stage of the new creation. I too think that this helps make sense of OT millennial passages being referenced in Revelation 21-22. However, I would differ with Schreiner on a few points. (1) I don’t interpret the OT millennial passages symbolically the way that Schreiner does. I think those passages actually blend the millennial stage of the new creation with the consummate stage. That is why they can be alluded to in Revelation 21-22 while also containing material that cannot be true of the consummate new creation. (2) Because I hold to a pre-Day of the Lord rapture, my view doesn’t have a problem with non-glorified saints entering the Millennial period. Thus, I don’t have the difficulty with who joins with Satan in the final battle against the saints. (3) In the interview Schreiner does not elaborate on the purpose for a millennial first stage for the new creation. In my view this period is when Jesus Christ, the second Man, leads all mankind to fulfill the blessed mandate of subduing the earth.

In the interview Schreiner notes that his overall interpretation of Revelation is symbolic. If his ESV Expository Commentary is a guide, to the forthcoming BECNT volume, it will be consistent with Beale’s modified idealism. In the intreview Schriener notes his concern is with newspaper eschatology: Hal Lindsay, Tim LaHaye, or those who were finding Iraq in Revelation during the early 2000s. I too am concerned with such eisegesis. I don’t think those views can rightly be called futurist. They are a kind of presentism, a historicist approach focused on the present, just as preterism is a historicist approach focused on the first century. A true futurist approach would see Revelation 6 and following taking place during the final Day of the Lord, the timing of which is completely unknown to us.

Schreiner also made some helpful comments about dispensationalism at the end of the interview. He notes that the trend today is away from dispensationalism. However, he warns against having a “superior, supercilious spirit” toward dispensationalists. I think this is precisely right. I find that dispensational positions, or even positions thought to be dispensational (even if they have been held by a wide variety of interpreters throughout church history), are often dismissed, without actual engagement with the arguments or perhaps with a passing reference to a proof text here (as though the interpretation of that text is beyond debate). Schreiner does not have that spirit and rightly warns against it.

Typology, Escalation, and Revelation: A Problem with the Idealist Approach to Revelation

by

I’ve recently been reading various commentaries on the trumpet judgments in Revelation 8-9. Everybody acknowledges that these judgments are modeled on the Egyptian plagues. Further, John’s description of the trumpet judgments are intensifications of the plagues.

The idealist interpreter must argue that the referent of these judgments are the normal kinds of events that characterize the entire inter-advent period. Further, it is not clear how the famines, diseases, etc. of the inter-advent period differ from those that preceded Christ.

The Egyptian plagues are the type, John’s description of antitype properly escalates the type, but the idealist interpreter must then deescalate the type to something less than the original type.

New Journal Article: The Futurist Interpretation of Revelation: Intertextual Evidence from the Prologue

by

In the most recent issue of BJU Seminary’s Journal of Biblical Theology and Worldview, I have an article that argues that the allusions to the Old Testament in the prologue to Revelation (1:1-18), when taken together, point readers to interpreting Revelation according to a futurist approach, which understands Revelation as being primarily about the ultimate Day of the Lord. My conclusion:

The Apostle John begins the book of Revelation with a cluster of OT allusions which together focus on the coming of the Messiah in a Day of the Lord to judge the nations and to establish his kingdom on earth to be ruled by redeemed mankind. This focus within the prologue serves as a signpost to readers for how they should approach the remainder of the book. Though not every allusion, on its own, decisively points to a futurist reading, when they are considered together, the futurist orientation of the prologue is clear

I also contributed a book review of Ben C. Blackwell, John K. Goodrich, and Jason Maston, eds., Reading Revelation in Context: John’s Apocalypse and Second Temple Judaism. My conclusion:

Reading Revelation in Context provides an interesting introduction to a segment of Second Temple literature. However, it fails to demonstrate the importance of this literature for understanding Revelation. Presuming that the authors chose the best companion texts, the lack of a strong connection between many of the texts and Revelation was notable. The most convincing parallels were due to the texts drawing on the same Old Testament material as Revelation. This reinforces what is plain from the numerous allusions to the Old Testament in Revelation: the most important source for rightly reading Revelation is antecedent Scripture.

What does it mean that the things prophesied in Revelation “must soon take place” (Rev. 1:1)?

by

G. K. Beale, who holds an idealist position claims that the term “soon” “appears to denote fulfillment in the near future, which perhaps has already begun in the present” (Beale 1999: 153). Peter Leithart, who holds a preterist position, insists that “soon” should be read in a straightforward manner and not trimmed or reinterpreted (Leithart 2018: 70-71).

However, there are good reasons for understanding the things which “must soon take place” to be the events of the Second Coming.

a. Revelation 1:1, 3 are paralleled in 22:6-7, 10, 12, 20. The ambiguous expressions “soon take place” and “the time is near” are clarified by the words of Jesus in 22:7, 12, 20: “I am coming soon.”

b. Other Scriptures speak of the Second Coming or its accompanying events as coming “soon,” “near,” “at hand,” etc. (Charles 1920: 6; Ladd 1972: 22; Osborne 2002: 55; Schreiner 2018: 549-50; Fanning 2020: 75).

Deuteronomy 32:35: “for the day of their calamity is at hand, And their doom comes swiftly.’” If this “doom” refers to an eschatological judgment (Jonathan Edwards 2006: 390-10; Jamison, Faussett, and Brown, 1:706; cf. Block 2012: 764.), the swiftness would have to be reckoned from God’s point of view.

Obadiah 15: “For the day of Yhwh is near upon all the nations.” Though Obadiah is focused on the judgment of Edom, this verse, encompassing as it does all the nations, is eschatological in scope (Raabe 1996: 191; Busenitz 2003: 270; Block 2013: 81; Rogland 2018: 383). There are two possible scriptural explanations for the use of this terminology. First, “what human beings consider ‘near’ need not be the same for God, for whom a ‘thousand years’ are ‘as a watch in the night’ (Ps. 90:4; cf. 2 Pet. 3:8–9)” (Rogland 2018: 383). Second, the Hebrew term translated “near” often “often expresses physical rather than temporal proximity” (Rogland 2018: 383). Thus the image would be of a threat that is always close by (See Raabe 1996: 192; Block 2013: 84).

Joel 3:14: “For the day of the Lord is near in the valley of decision.” Joel 1:15 and 2:1 also refer to the day of the Lord as “near,” but those verses likely refer to a historical day of the Lord (Finley 1990: 35, 40-42; Seitz 2016: 149-50; cf. Garret 1997: 328). This verse refers to the eschatological day of the Lord, but the statement of nearness should be considered as interior to the prophecy, not as measured from Joel’s time. Thus, this verse is not relevant to the question at hand.

Isaiah 13:6: “Wail, for the day of the Lord is near.” The day of the Lord in this chapter likely refers both to a historical judgment against Babylon and to the ultimate eschatological day of the Lord (Young, 1:419; Grogan, EBC, 101; Webb 1996: 81; Raabe 2002: 652-74; Adams 2007: 43-44; cf. Wolf 1985: 110; Oswalt 1986: 299.). It may be that the statement about nearness is “not from the standpoint of Isaiah’s own day,” but from the standpoint of those who experience the fulfillment of the prophecy (Young, 1:419). Or it may speak to “the total preparedness of that day to dawn whenever the Lord declares that the time has come” (Motyer, 138).

Zephaniah 1:7, 14: “Be silent before the Lord GOD! For the day of the LORD is near…. The great day of the LORD is near, near and hastening fast.” While verse 7 could refer to a historical day of the Lord, verse 14 clearly refers to the eschatological day (Motyer 1998: 922). Motyer notes, “”Imminence is part of the prophetic definition of the day of the Lord (Ezek. 7:2, 10; 30:2-3; Joel 1:15; Hag. 2:6), as it is in the New Testament, which expects the imminent return of the Lord Jesus Christ” (Motyer 1998: 917). It is challenging, however, to see how the eschatological day of the Lord could be imminent prior to the first advent. Patterson suggests a linkage between the historical and eschatological days: “However much the events detailed here may have full reference only to the final phase of the Day of the Lord, they were an integral part of the prophecy and could occur anywhere along the series” (Patterson 1991: 320). Robertson notes that this idea of the nearness of the day of the Lord is picked up by the New Testament (Robertson 1990: 281).

Luke 18:7-8: “And will not God give justice to his elect, who cry to him day and night? Will he delay long over them? I tell you, he will give justice to them speedily [ἐν τάχει]. Nevertheless, when the Son of Man comes, will he find faith on earth?” Bock notes that though Luke recognizes that there is “a concern about the return’s delay,” he can still affirm the speedy return to give justice (Bock 1996: 1453; Bock does note that this may be partially explained by the inaugurated last days). Marshall observes, “To the elect it may seem to be a long time until he answers, but afterwards they will realise that it was in fact short” (Marshall 1978: 676; cf. Plummer 1922: 414; Stein 1992: 446.).

Romans 13:11-12: “For salvation is nearer to us now than when we first believed. The night is far gone; the day is at hand.” The use of night and day imagery references the day of the Lord concept, with the night representing “the present evil age” and the day the day of the Lord (Moo 1996: 820-21; cf. Murray 1965: 167, 169; Schreiner 2017: 677-78). The “salvation” that has drawn near is culmination of God’s saving work at the return of Christ (Murray 1965: 165-66; Moo 1996: 822; Schreiner 2018: 677). Cranfield explains, “the primitive Church was convinced that the ministry of Jesus had ushered in the last days, the End-time…. As the interval provided by God’s patience in order to give men time to hear the gospel and to make the decision of faith, it could hardly be properly characterized otherwise than as ‘short time’” (Cranfield 1979: 683; cf. esp. Moo 1996: 822; Schreiner 2018: 678).

Romans 16:20: “The God of peace will soon [ἐν τάχει] crush Satan under your feet.” Cranfield observes, “That the promise refers to the eschatological consummation, and not to some special divine deliverance in the course of their lives, seems to us virtually certain” (Cranfield 1979: 803). Cranfield holds that verse 20 speaks of eschatological victory without reference to the opponents of 16:17-19 (Cranfield 1979: 803). Schreiner grants that a connection to the false teachers mentioned in 16:17-19 exists, but he believes the victory over those opponents is eschatological (Schreiner 2018: 799). Murray and Moo teach that the ultimate victory is eschatological, though they think there may be realizations of the victory throughout the history of the church (Murray 1965: 237; Moo 1996: 933). All three views are possible. Moo notes, “Paul’s prediction that the victory over Satan will come ‘quickly (ἐν τάχει) is no problem for the eschatological view once we appreciate rightly the NT concept of imminence” (Moo 1996: 933, n. 41; cf. Schreiner 2018: 799).

1 Corinthians 7:29, 31: “This is what I mean, brothers: the appointed time has grown very short…. For the present form of this world is passing away.” The form of this world is expressed by Paul in 7:30: “marriage, sadness, joy, possessing, and making use of the things of the world” (Taylor 2014: 191; cf. Ciampa and Rosner 2010: 348-49; Schreiner 2018: 157). At the day of the Lord, these will be replaced by life in the new creation (Lockwood 2000: 257). Fee and Garland claim that the present tense of παράγω (“is passing away”) indicates that that the process has already begun (Fee 1987: 342; Garland 2003: 331). Thus, the present time “has grown very short.” Christians live in the last days expecting the coming of Christ (See esp. Lockwood 200: 255-56 and Schreiner 2018: 156; cf. Ciampa and Rosner 2010: 344).

Philippians 4:5: “The Lord is at hand.” While some understand the nearness of the Lord to be spatial (Bockmuehl 1997: 245-46 is ambivalent), it is best to understand this in reference to the temporal nearness of the coming of the Lord (O’Brien 1991: 489; Fee 1995: 408; Silva 2005: 198; Hansen 2009: 289). On this understanding, “the eschatological dimension of this text may reflect Old Testament texts that speak of the coming ‘day of the Lord’ as ‘near’ (engus): these include Isa. 13:6; Ezek. 30:3; Joel 1:15; 3:14” (Bockmuehl 1997: 246).

Hebrews 10:25: “… all the more as you see the Day drawing near.” Philip Edgcumbe Hughes observes,  “When spoken of in this absolute manner, ‘the Day’ can mean only the last day, that ultimate eschatological day, which is the day of reckoning and judgment, known as the Day of the Lord (cf. 1 Cor. 3:13; Acts 2:20; 1 Thess. 5:2; 2 Thess. 2:2; 2 Pet. 3:10, 12; Mt. 7:22; 10:15; 11:22, 24; 24:36; Mk. 13:32; Lk. 10:12; 17:26, 30, 31; 21:34; Jn. 6:39; Phil. 1:6, 10; 2:16; 1 Cor. 1:8; 5:5; 2 Cor. 1:14; Jude 6; Rev. 6:17)” (Hughes 1977: 416; cf. Attridge 1989: 291; Lane 1991: 290; Guthrie 1998: 346; Koester 2008: 446; O’Brien 2010: 371; Cockerill 2012: 481; Johnson 2018: 147, 150). Though some have suggested that the reference was to AD 70 (Owen 1991: 526), there is nothing contextually that connects to AD 70 and the unqualified usage best links this verse with the eschatological day of the Lord passages (Hughes 1977: 416; Cockerill 2012: 481, n. 70).

James 5:8, 9: “For the coming of the Lord is at hand… the Judge is standing at the door.”  Scot McKnight argues that the term “at hand” cannot simply refer to the imminence of the Second Coming. He claims it must be “understood as referring to something about to happen,” namely the judgment of Jerusalem in AD 70 (McKnight 2011: 411-12). However this requires McKnight to conclude that the Olivet Discourse should be read in a preterist manner and that Paul, in allusions to the Olivet Discourse, understood Parousia differently from Jesus (and James) (McKnight 2011: 406-7). Not only are these positions unlikely, it is also unlikely that James is warning Christian Jews in the dispersion (see McKnight 2011: 67-68) about their being judged by the Lord in the AD 70 judgment on Jerusalem. More likely is the view that Christians are in the last days and that the return of Christ is imminent; the Judge could pass through the doors at any moment (Hiebert 1992: 272-74; Moo 2000: 223-24; Blomberg and Kamell 2008: 227-28; McCartney 2009: 241-42). As McCartney notes, “Three other NT authors use this verb (ἐγγίζω, engizo) to speak of the day of judgment or the arrival of the Lord (Rom. 10 13:12; Heb. 10:25; 1 Pet. 4:7)” (McCartney 2009: 241).

First Peter 4:7: “The end of all things is at hand.” When Peter exhorts his readers to live righteously because “the end of all things is at hand,” je is reminding them that they live in the last days. The next major event of redemptive history is the Second Coming (Lille 1868: 274-75; Grudem 1988: 180; Hiebert 1992: 269; Schreiner 2003: 210; Storms 2018: 347; cf. Achtemeier 1996: 293-94). Though some have argued that this is a reference to the destruction of Jerusalem in AD 70, Sam Storms observes, “it seems strange to speak of it as ‘the end of all things.’” In addition, he questions the relevance of that event as a motivating factor for Christians living in Asia Minor (Storms 2018: 347).

c. A common explanation for this language with reference to events yet future is that “soon” should be understood from God’s perspective: “[T]o the eyes of the eternal and endless God all ages are regarded as nothing, for, as the prophet says, ‘A thousand years in your sight, O Lord, are as yesterday when it is past, or as a watch in the night’” (Oecumenius 2011: 3; cf. Perkins 2017: 313? 314?; Thomas 1992: 55-56; Hamilton 2012: 32; Schreiner 2018: 549-50; Fanning 2020: 75). See 1 Cor. 10:11; 1 Pet. 4:7; 1 John 2:18; James 5:8; Rev. 22:10 (Andrew of Caesarea 2011: 114; Gerhard, 11).

d. Another explanation: “These events could happen at any moment” (Hamilton 2012: 32; cf. Mounce 1998:41). Schreiner notes, “the last days have arrived with the death, resurrection, and ascension of Jesus Christ (Acts 2:16–17; Heb. 1:2). The last hour has now come (1 John 2:18), and thus the end is imminent, and has been for two thousand years. Every generation has rightly said Jesus is coming soon, because all the great redemptive events needed for him to return have been accomplished” (Schreiner 2018: 549-50; cf. Fanning 2020: 75; cf. Osborne 2002: 55).

Revelation 1:1 – “the things that must soon take place”

by

The words “the things that must soon take place” (ἃ δεῖ γενέσθαι ἐν τάχει) (Rev. 1:1) are probably an allusion to Daniel 2:28-29, 45 in Greek translation: the Lord “made known to King Nebuchadnezzar things that must take place at the end of days [ἃ δεῖ γενέσθαι ἐπʼ ἐσχάτων τῶν ἡμερῶν], and he who reveals mysteries showed to you things that are necessary to take place [ἃ δεῖ γενέσθαι.] (Dan. 2:28-29, LES) (Ladd 1972: 21; Thomas 1992: 53; Beale 1999: 137, 153; Osborne 2002: 54; Smalley 2005: 27; Boxall 2006: 24; Leithart 2018: 71; Fanning 2020: 74-75).

G. K. Beale and Peter Leithart argue that the allusion to Daniel 2:28-29, 45 indicates that John’s visions refer to events that began in John’s own time (Beale 1999: 137, 153; Leithart 2018: 71).

However, there are good reasons for understanding the allusion to support yet future referents (generally speaking) to John’s visions.

a. The earliest commentator on Daniel distinguished between the legs of iron, symbolizing ancient Rome, and the ten toes of iron mixed with clay, which he related to future entities (Hippolytus 2017: 78; cf. Hippolytus 1886: 186). The basic correctness of his interpretation is confirmed by the parallel with the ten horns on the fourth beast in Daniel 7:24-27. These horns relate to the fourth beast but represent a distinct eschatological stage of his activity (see below).

b. The stone, representing Christ’s kingdom, smashed the image, not upon the iron legs of the fourth kingdom (Rome), but upon the iron and clay mixture that represented the divisions that followed the Rome of Jesus’s day (Miller 1994: 100).

c. The stone destroyed not only the feet but all the previous parts of the image as well. The utter destruction of the image symbolized the complete replacement of human kingdoms with the Messianic kingdom (Miller 1994: 101; Greidanus 2012: 76, n. 51). The destruction of “every rule and every authority and power” comes at “the end, when he delivers the kingdom to God the Father” (1 Cor. 15:24). Justin Martyr, Irenaeus, Hippolytus, and Theodore of Cyrus all connected the crushing of the statue with the second advent. Irenaeus taught that the ten toes referred to kings existing in “the last times,” that is in the time of Antichrist. He concluded, “they shall be destroyed by the coming of our Lord” (Irenaeus, AH 5.26.1-2). Theodoret wrote, “Clearly, this teaches about that which will occur at the end, that is, the coming of the kingdom of heaven that is without end.” And, “The stone that was cut without hands and grew into a great mountain and fills the whole earth is the second advent” (Stevenson and Gluerup 2008: 171). Hippolytus taught that the stone crushes “the kingdoms of this world” when Christ “comes from the heavens” that he “might set up the heavenly kingdom of the saints which shall never be destroyed” (Hippolytus 2017: 78 [2.12.7, 2.13.2]; Hippolytus 1886: 209-10 [§27]).

d. Psalm 110 provides a paradigm for understanding the two stages of the coming of Christ’s kingdom. At present the kingdom is coming in salvation, and Christ reigns in the midst of his enemies. In the future, the kingdom will come in judgment, and Christ will scatter kings in the day of his wrath. This vision clearly displays the latter.

e. This eschatological reading finds confirmation in Daniel 7. Interpreters of diverse perspectives recognize that the vision in Daniel 7 elaborates on the vision of chapter 2 (Steinmann 2008: 328; Tanner 2020: 396-97). The same four kingdoms found in Daniel 2 reappear in Daniel 7, symbolized as beasts (cf. Dan. 7:17, 23). Notably, even commentators who denied an eschatological referent to the feet of the statue in Daniel 2 see an eschatological culmination in Daniel 7. Young, along with interpreters from the church fathers onward, identifies the little horn with the Antichrist (7:8, 20, 24) (Young 1949: 150; cf. Hippolytus 136-37 (4.5.3; 4.7.1); Jermone 1958: 77; Wood 1973: 188; Miller 1994: 202-3; Steinmann 2008: 348-49; Tanner 2020: 413; note, however, that these interpreters have different views on Antichrist and his appearing). Young concludes, “Thus, in one remarkable picture, the entire course of history is given from the appearance of the historical Roman Empire until the end of human government” (Young 1949: 150). Steinmann similarly says, “It seems that the vision given Daniel in 7:9–14, which is interpreted in 7:15–28, pictures in one scene the entire sweep of salvation history that includes Christ’s first advent, the church age, and Christ’s second advent” (Steinmann 2008: 329-30).

f. The opposition of the little horn to the saints will only end when the Ancient of Days comes to put an end to it (Dan. 7:22) and when the Son of Man comes to the Ancient of Days (Dan. 7:13-14).

h. Since Daniel 2 is a prophecy about the establishment of the kingdom of God coming in eschatological judgment, the things that must soon take place which John will see in his visions are about the future coming of the kingdom in judgment.

“The Book of Parables” and the Interpretation of Revelation

by

Nickelsburg, George W. E.  and James C. VanderKam. 1 Enoch 2: A Commentary on the Book of 1 Enoch, Chapters 37-82. Hermenia, ed. Klaus Baltzer. Minneapolis: Fortress, 2012.

I read the section by Nickelsburg on the “Book of Parables” (1 Enoch 37-71). One of my goals was to assess the similarity/dissimilarity between “The Book of Parables” and Revelation. There are some similarities between Revelation 4-5 and parts of “The Book of Parables,” but in general “The Book of Parables” is not full of the same rich imagery as Revelation.

There is some similarity in content. “The Book of Parables” draws heavily from Daniel, Isaiah, Ezekiel, and Psalms as does Revelation. It also focuses on a Messiah figure bringing eschatological judgment to the earth. However, “The Book of Parables” lacks Revelations detailed treatment of the Day of the Lord that precedes the final judgment.

I remain skeptical about assigning much weight to “The Book of Parables” in determining how Revelation should be interpreted. I think that comparisons between Revelation and Daniel, Ezekiel, Isaiah, and the other canonical prophets are more significant. However, if “The Book of Parables” weighs at all (e.g., as a witness to how some early interpreters of Daniel, Isaiah, Ezekiel, etc. understood those texts), it is worth noting that “The Book of Parables” is futuristic rather than idealistic, preterist, or historicist in orientation.

The Olivet Discourse: Persecution

by

In an earlier post I noted that there are four major approaches to the Olivet Discourse. (1) It refers entirely or primarily to the events of AD 70. (2) It refers entirely to eschatological events. (3) It refers to events that span from the first century through the present to the eschatological return of Christ. (4) It refers to AD 70 as the type of the Day of the Lord and to the eschatological Day of the Lord itself.

The interpretation of Matthew 24:9-14; Mark 13:9-13; Luke 21:12-19 verses deals with an apparent chronological discrepancy between Luke and Matthew. Resolving this seeming discrepancy provide support to the thesis that the Olivet Discourse refers to AD 70 as the type of the Day of the Lord and to the eschatological Day itself.

These verses turn to the issue of persecution. There is a seeming discrepancy between Matthew and Luke at this point. Mathew begins this section with “then,” whereas Luke begins with “But before all this.”

Luke’s time reference is clearest. Before the false messiahs, wars, earthquakes, famines, and heavenly signs, Jesus’s followers would be persecuted by both Jews and Gentiles. Acts recounts that this persecution began as soon as the church was formed. Acts even uses the words of Jesus’s prophecy to describe this persecution:

“Lay hands on you” (Acts 4:3, 5:18; 12:1; 21:27); “persecute” (Acts 9:4–5; 22:7–8; 26:14–15); “hand over” (Acts 8:3; 12:4; 21:11; 22:4; 27:1; 28:17); “to synagogues” (Acts 6:9; 9:2; 19:8–9; 22:19; 26:11); “jails” (Acts 5:19–25; 8:3; 12:4–17; 16:23–40; 22:4, 19; 26:10); “kings” (Acts 9:15; 12:1; 25:23–28:28); “governors” (Acts 23:24, 26, 33; 24:1, 10; 26:30; see also 13:7; 18:12).[1]

Luke’s account of the discourse affirms that this persecution will be an opportunity to bear witness to the gospel—which Acts also recounts (4:5-12, 33; 7:1-60; 23:11).[2] Divine empowering to present this witness without forethought may be exemplified by Stephen (Acts 7).[3] These verses, then, clearly describe the persecution of the church as described in Acts before the events leading up to the destruction of the temple in AD 70.

Mark’s account is similar to Luke’s. He adds that the followers of Jesus would be beaten in synagogues, which also occurred in the earliest days of the church (Acts 5:40; 22:19; 2 Cor. 11:24).[4]

Matthew’s account is significantly different from Luke’s. In both Matthew and Luke, Jesus’s followers are delivered up, hated for his name’s sake, and put to death. But the wording is different, and Matthew doesn’t mention the Jewish features (sanhedrin/councils, synagogues) as Mark and Luke do. The Matthean parallel to these verses Mark and Luke occurs in in Matthew 10:19-21, not in the Olivet Discourse.

The parallel between Matthew 10:19-21 and Mark and Luke’s account of the Olivet Discourse can be accounted for by the fact that Jesus, as he traveled from place to place, probably often said similar things on different occasions.[5]

It may be that because Matthew had already presented his readers with the content found in Mark and Luke’s version of the Olivet Discourse, he omitted that material here. The omission also allows Matthew to emphasize the eschatological aspect of the discourse. While Luke emphasized the first century aspect, Matthew presented readers with a part of the discourse not fully represented in Mark and Luke.

In Matthew’s account Jesus indicated that in conjunction with or following the initial birth pains, persecution will come.[6] This persecution will be exacerbated as people “fall away” from the faith and then “betray” believers. Paul interpreted this part of the discourse eschatologically: “In 2 Thess 2:3 (built on the Olivet Discourse) this becomes the ‘apostasy’ or ‘rebellion’ that accompanies the appearance of the ‘man of lawlessness.’”[7]

 Contributing to this apostasy are false prophets. There were certainly many of these in the first century: “Acts 20:30: Gal. 1:7–9: Rom. 16:17, 18: Col. 2:17–end: 1 Tim. 1:6, 7, 20; 6:3–5, 20, 21: 2 Tim. 2:18; 3:6–8; 2 Pet. 2 (and Jude): 1 John 2:18, 22, 23, 26; 4:1, 3: 2 John 7.”[8] But the work of false prophets culminates in the false prophet  (Rev. 13: 11-16).[9] In contrast to the apostates, those who endure throughout the day of the Lord will be saved (24:13 || 13:13).

To close out this section, Jesus said, “And this gospel of the kingdom will be proclaimed throughout the whole world as a testimony to all nations, and then the end will come” (24:14; cf. 13:10). With regard to the type, this prophecy refers to the spread of the gospel throughout the known world of that day.[10] For instance, Paul could say that the gospel was prospering “in the world” (Col. 1:6) and even that it “has been proclaimed in all creation under heaven” (Col. 1:23).

Paul was probably indicating, with expansive language, that the Gospel had gone to all the nations and was continuing to spread among them.[11] The expansive language was used because Paul was stating that “the gospel had in principle already been preached world-wide” even though in practice it is still in process of spreading worldwide.[12]

However, the typological fulfillment of this saying does not exhaust its significance. The ultimate end in view is the one mentioned in 24:6–the end of the day of the Lord when the Son of Man returns to earth. Alford argues that despite the typological fulfillment, “in the wider sense, the words imply that the Gospel shall be preached in all the world, literally taken, before the great and final end come.”[13] The Old Testament prophets looked forward to the day when then nations would be gathered to worship God, and there may be an allusion to that here.[14] Hays says, “One suspects that Isaiah hovers somewhere in the background (passages such as Isa 2:2-4, 49:6, 57:6-8; 60:1-3; cf. Ps 22:27-28).”[15] Revelation also predicts the world-wide proclamation of the gospel (Rev. 5:9-10; 7:9; 14:6), and the ultimate fulfillment of this prophecy will come to pass during the Day of the Lord predicted by Revelation.

Matthew 10:17-22, which parallels Mark and Luke’s accounts of the Olivet Discourse, is part of a discourse that began as instruction for the Twelve as Jesus sent them out on a preaching and healing mission to the Jews. However, by verse 17 the discourse looks beyond that initial mission.[16] In verse 5 Jesus instructed the Twelve to limit their mission to the Jews, but by verse 18 the Gentiles are in view as well.[17] In addition, the persecution envisioned in 10:17-22 goes far beyond anything that occurred during Jesus’s earthly ministry.[18] By verses 22 and 23 “the end” and the “coming” are in view. Thus this passage culminates on an eschatological note.[19]

The phrase “you will not have gone through all the towns of Israel before the Son of Man comes” is obviously not true if it refers to the Twelve’s evangelistic mission during Jesus’s earthly ministry. There are two plausible interpretations that both have a long pedigree. Hilary of Poitiers proposed,

In order to show that the pagans were going to believe in the apostolic preaching, while the rest of Israel would believe only at the occurrence of his [second] advent, he said: You will not finish going through the cities of Israel until the Son of Man comes. In other words, once the full number of pagans is added, the rest of Israel will be placed in the Church at the future advent of his glory in order to complete the number of saints.[20]

Many modern commentators have similarly concluded that these verses indicate that the “mission to Israel” will not be complete before the Second Coming.[21]

Another option is that these words “do not denote the mission but the flight of the disciples. This is clear from the beginning of this verse, ‘When they persecute you in this city, flee ye into another.’”[22] Something similar to this can be found in the Incomplete Commentary on Matthew.[23] This reading may parallel Revelations 12:13-17. In either case this passage is ultimately eschatological.

The eschatological nature of Matthew 10 casts the parallels in Mark 13 and Luke 21 in another light. Though Luke certainly emphasizes the typological fulfillment in his presentation, the eschatological element should not be thought to be entirely absent in Luke and Mark. Mark in particular has two eschatologically oriented parallels with Matthew in this section: the gospel will be preached to all the nations (13:10), the one who endures to the end is the one who is saved (13:13).

[1] Garland 2012: 830, n. 11; cf. Stein 1992: 516-17.

[2] Garland 2012: 831.

[3] Edwards 2015: 600.

[4] Strauss 2014: 574.

[5] Wright 1992: 422-23; cf. Carson 1984: 248.

[6] Meyer 1884: 131-32.

[7] Osborne 2010: 875-76; cf. Wilkins 2014: 99.

[8] Alford 1976: 237-38.

[9] Osborne 2012: 876.

[10] Witsius 1837: 407-8 (4.15.13); Alford 1976: 238; Blomberg 1992: 356.

[11] Davenant 1627: 265; O’Brien 1982: 71.

[12] Wright 1986: 89.

[13] Alford 1976: 238.

[14] Nolland 2005: 967.

[15] Hays 2016: 95.

[16] Blomberg 1992: 174; Davies and Allison 2004a: 179, 181-82; Luz 2001: 89.

[17] Carson1984: 242.

[18] Davies and Allison 2004: 179.

[19] Davies and Allison 2004: 182; Nolland 2005: 425.

[20] Hilary of Poitiers 2012: 119.

[21] Blomberg 1992: 176; Bock 2002: 573; Davies and Allison 2004: 190; Wilkins 2014: 97-98.

[22] Ridderbos 1962: 509; cf. Nolland 2005: 427.

[23] Oden and Bray 2010: 179

The Olivet Discourse: The Beginning of Birth Pains

by

In an earlier post I noted that there are four major approaches to the Olivet Discourse. (1) It refers entirely or primarily to the events of AD 70. (2) It refers entirely to eschatological events. (3) It refers to events that span from the first century through the present to the eschatological return of Christ. (4) It refers to AD 70 as the type of the Day of the Lord and to the eschatological Day of the Lord itself.

The interpretation of these verses largely determines whether an interpreter will adopt view 3 or view 4 (the two most likely interpretive options).

Matthew 24:4-8; Mark 13:5-8; Luke 21:8-11

These verses were clearly fulfilled typologically in the years between Christ’s ascension and the destruction of the temple in AD 70. Many commentators document these historical fulfillments:

Various messianic pretenders arose, most notably Theudas (Acts 5:36; Josephus, Ant. 20.97–99, 160–72, 188, who describes other false claimants as well). The war of Israel against Rome began in A.D. 66–67 and was preceded by the growing hostility incited by the Zealots. Famine ravaged Judea, as predicted in Acts 11:27–30, datable to ca. A.D. 45–47 by Josephus, Ant. 20.51–53. Earthquakes shook Laodicea in A.D. 60–61 and Pompeii in A.D. 62 (cf. also Acts 16:26).[1]

However, as is common when type is followed by its anti-type, the type only foreshadows the fuller fulfillment of the type. Luz observes that, “we should understand their ‘I am the Christ’ as a way of identifying with Jesus Christ and not as a general messianic claim.”[2]  And even if the claim is understood as general, Meyer observes,

We possess no historical record of any false Messiahs having appeared previous to the destruction of Jerusalem (Barcochba did not make his appearance till the time of Hadrian); for Simon Magus (Acts 8:9), Theudas (Acts 5:36), the Egyptian (Acts 21:38), Menander, Dositheus, who have been referred to as cases in point …, did not pretend to be the Messiah.[3]

Thus the first century shadows point toward a fuller, future fulfillment.

Many interpreters understand these verses to describe the entire inter-advent period.[4] Even some who in general see later parts of the discourse as concerning both AD 70 and the future, see these verses as exclusively focused on the entire inter-advent period.[5] These interpreters think that Jesus’s statement “but the end is not yet/immediately” (24:6 || 13:7 || 21:9) indicates that this section cannot present the events of the day of the Lord. Blomberg even proposes that parallels between this section and Revelation 6 confirm this (on the supposition that the eschatological tribulation period cannot begin until the seven seals are broken).[6]

However, it is best to understand these verses as referring typologically to the first century and ultimately to the ultimate day of the Lord.[7] In terms of the type, the end in view is the destruction of the temple.[8] There is a definite first-century referent to “the end” as far as the type is concerned. Regarding the anti-type, the end “must be taken as referring to the end of the dolores Messiae,” that is the end of Messianic pangs (see v. 8), which signify the time of great trouble that precede the Son’s return to earth.[9] Vos observed,

As an infant cannot be born without pains, so too the rebirth of the entire earthly creation, which coincides with the end, will occur under terrible labor pains. The beginning of those pains consists of wars, sicknesses, famines, and earthquakes. In itself all of this would not yet be something special, but Luke 21:11 tells us that this will be accompanied by “terrible things and great signs from heaven,” thus by something absolutely extraordinary, so that it will be easy to distinguish them from ordinary disasters and distresses.[10]

Carson provides some helpful information about the “birth pains”:

“Birth pains” (v. 8) in this context (elsewhere in the NT in Acts 2:24 [“agony”]; 1 Thess. 5:3) stems from such OT passages as Isaiah 13:8; 26:17; Jeremiah 4:31; 6:24; Micah 4:9-10. By this time it was almost a special term for “the birthpangs of the Messiah,” the period of distress preceding the Messianic age.[11]

Though most of the Old Testament passages cited by Carson refer to Israel writhing under historical judgments, Isaiah 13:8 links the image with the eschatological day of the Lord (cf. Isa. 13:6). Significantly, Paul alludes to the birth pains of the Olivet Discourse in his description of the onset of the day of the Lord in 1 Thessalonians 5:3.[12] Thus Paul interprets that these verses as referring ultimately to the final day of the Lord.

This distinction between the initial birth pangs and “the end” reveals that the final day of the Lord is not an instantaneous event coterminous with the return of Christ.[13] Instead, these verses indicate that “the eschatological tribulation extend[s] over time.”[14]

Luz captures the meaning of this section of the discourse well when, while acknowledging first century applicability, he states, “Thus begin the ‘pangs’—that is, the tribulations of the last days…. Thus all of that is not yet the end, but it does deal with the beginnings of the end.”[15]

[1] Blomberg 1992: 356; cf. Aquinas 2012: 764-65; Alford 1976: 236-37; Edwards 2002: 391-92

[2] Luz 2005: 191.

[3] Meyer 1884: 128.

[4] Carson 1984: 497; Osborne 2010: 874.

[5] Turner 2008: 565.

[6] Blomberg 1992: 353-54; cf. Cranfield 1959: 396.

[7] Cf. Aquinas 2012: 764-65; Nolland 2005: 962-63; Blaising 2010: 41, 45, n. 39.

[8] Garland 2011: 829.

[9] Meyer 1884: 129.

[10] Vos 2016: 285.

[11] Carson 1984: 498; cf. Blaising 2010: 45-46. Note, however, that Carson understands these verses to refer to the entire inter-advent period.

[12] Milligan 1908: 65; Morris 1984: 94; Best 1986: 208; Green 2002: 234; Beale 2003: 137; Davies and Allison 2004b: 340, 342; Shogren 2012: 204.

[13] As in Beale 2003: 144.

[14] Davies and Allison 2004b: 341.

[15] Luz 2005: 192.